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The **core of macOS is XNU**, which stands for "X is Not Unix". This kernel is fundamentally composed of the **Mach microkerne**l (to be discussed later), **and** elements from Berkeley Software Distribution (**BSD**). XNU also provides a platform for **kernel drivers via a system called the I/O Kit**. The XNU kernel is part of the Darwin open source project, which means **its source code is freely accessible**.
From a perspective of a security researcher or a Unix developer, **macOS** can feel quite **similar** to a **FreeBSD** system with an elegant GUI and a host of custom applications. Most applications developed for BSD will compile and run on macOS without needing modifications, as the command-line tools familiar to Unix users are all present in macOS. However, because the XNU kernel incorporates Mach, there are some significant differences between a traditional Unix-like system and macOS, and these differences might cause potential issues or provide unique advantages.
Mach is a **microkernel** designed to be **UNIX-compatible**. One of its key design principles was to **minimize** the amount of **code** running in the **kernel** space and instead allow many typical kernel functions, such as file system, networking, and I/O, to **run as user-level tasks**.
In XNU, Mach is **responsible for many of the critical low-level operations** a kernel typically handles, such as processor scheduling, multitasking, and virtual memory management.
The XNU **kernel** also **incorporates** a significant amount of code derived from the **FreeBSD** project. This code **runs as part of the kernel along with Mach**, in the same address space. However, the FreeBSD code within XNU may differ substantially from the original FreeBSD code because modifications were required to ensure its compatibility with Mach. FreeBSD contributes to many kernel operations including:
Understanding the interaction between BSD and Mach can be complex, due to their different conceptual frameworks. For instance, BSD uses processes as its fundamental executing unit, while Mach operates based on threads. This discrepancy is reconciled in XNU by **associating each BSD process with a Mach task** that contains exactly one Mach thread. When BSD's fork() system call is used, the BSD code within the kernel uses Mach functions to create a task and a thread structure.
Moreover, **Mach and BSD each maintain different security models**: **Mach's** security model is based on **port rights**, whereas BSD's security model operates based on **process ownership**. Disparities between these two models have occasionally resulted in local privilege-escalation vulnerabilities. Apart from typical system calls, there are also **Mach traps that allow user-space programs to interact with the kernel**. These different elements together form the multifaceted, hybrid architecture of the macOS kernel.
The I/O Kit is an open-source, object-oriented **device-driver framework** in the XNU kernel, handles **dynamically loaded device drivers**. It allows modular code to be added to the kernel on-the-fly, supporting diverse hardware.
The **kernelcache** is a **pre-compiled and pre-linked version of the XNU kernel**, along with essential device **drivers** and **kernel extensions**. It's stored in a **compressed** format and gets decompressed into memory during the boot-up process. The kernelcache facilitates a **faster boot time** by having a ready-to-run version of the kernel and crucial drivers available, reducing the time and resources that would otherwise be spent on dynamically loading and linking these components at boot time.
In iOS it's located in **`/System/Library/Caches/com.apple.kernelcaches/kernelcache`** in macOS you can find it with **`find / -name kernelcache 2>/dev/null`** or **`mdfind kernelcache | grep kernelcache`**
It's possible to run **`kextstat`** to check the loaded kernel extensions.
The IMG4 file format is a container format used by Apple in its iOS and macOS devices for securely **storing and verifying firmware** components (like **kernelcache**). The IMG4 format includes a header and several tags which encapsulate different pieces of data including the actual payload (like a kernel or bootloader), a signature, and a set of manifest properties. The format supports cryptographic verification, allowing the device to confirm the authenticity and integrity of the firmware component before executing it.
It's usually composed of the following components:
Sometime Apple releases **kernelcache** with **symbols**. You can download some firmwares with symbols by following links on [https://theapplewiki.com](https://theapplewiki.com/).
### IPSW
These are Apple **firmwares** you can download from [**https://ipsw.me/**](https://ipsw.me/). Among other files it will contains the **kernelcache**.\
To **extract** the files you can just **unzip** it.
After extracting the firmware you will get a file like: **`kernelcache.release.iphone14`**. It's in **IMG4** format, you can extract the interesting info with:
macOS is **super restrictive to load Kernel Extensions** (.kext) because of the high privileges that code will run with. Actually, by default is virtually impossible (unless a bypass is found).
Instead of using Kernel Extensions macOS created the System Extensions, which offers in user level APIs to interact with the kernel. This way, developers can avoid to use kernel extensions.
* [**The Mac Hacker's Handbook**](https://www.amazon.com/-/es/Charlie-Miller-ebook-dp-B004U7MUMU/dp/B004U7MUMU/ref=mt\_other?\_encoding=UTF8\&me=\&qid=)
<summary><strong>Learn AWS hacking from zero to hero with</strong><ahref="https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte"><strong>htARTE (HackTricks AWS Red Team Expert)</strong></a><strong>!</strong></summary>
* If you want to see your **company advertised in HackTricks** or **download HackTricks in PDF** Check the [**SUBSCRIPTION PLANS**](https://github.com/sponsors/carlospolop)!
* **Join the** 💬 [**Discord group**](https://discord.gg/hRep4RUj7f) or the [**telegram group**](https://t.me/peass) or **follow** us on **Twitter** 🐦 [**@carlospolopm**](https://twitter.com/hacktricks\_live)**.**
* **Share your hacking tricks by submitting PRs to the** [**HackTricks**](https://github.com/carlospolop/hacktricks) and [**HackTricks Cloud**](https://github.com/carlospolop/hacktricks-cloud) github repos.
