hacktricks/todo/rust-basics.md

Rust QaStaHvIS

QaStaHvIS QaD

QaStaHvIS vItlhutlh 1 vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh vItlhutlh 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struct Wrapper<T> {
value: T,
}

impl<T> Wrapper<T> {
pub fn new(value: T) -> Self {
Wrapper { value }
}
}

Wrapper::new(42).value
Wrapper::new("Foo").value, "Foo"

Option, Some & None

Option lo' means that the value might by of type Some (ghaH) or None (pagh):

pub enum Option<T> {
None,
Some(T),
}

Macros

Macros are more powerful than functions because they expand to produce more code than the code you’ve written manually. For example, a function signature must declare the number and type of parameters the function has. Macros, on the other hand, can take a variable number of parameters: we can call println!("hello") with one argument or println!("hello {}", name) with two arguments. Also, macros are expanded before the compiler interprets the meaning of the code, so a macro can, for example, implement a trait on a given type. A function can’t, because it gets called at runtime and a trait needs to be implemented at compile time.

macro_rules! my_macro {
() => {
println!("Check out my macro!");
};
($val:expr) => {
println!("Look at this other macro: {}", $val);
}
}
fn main() {
my_macro!();
my_macro!(7777);
}

// Export a macro from a module
mod macros {
#[macro_export]
macro_rules! my_macro {
() => {
println!("Check out my macro!");
};
}
}

Qap

{::comment}

Iterate

{:/comment}

{::comment}

Rust

{:/comment}

In Rust, you can use the iter method to iterate over a collection. The iter method returns an iterator, which allows you to loop over the elements of the collection.

Here's an example of how to use the iter method:

let numbers = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5];

for number in numbers.iter() {
    println!("Number: {}", number);
}

This code will iterate over the numbers vector and print each number.

{::comment}

Klingon

{:/comment}

Rust vItlhutlh, vaj vItlhutlhDaq 'iter' method vay' vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq vItlhutlhDaq 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// Iterate through a vector
let my_fav_fruits = vec!["banana", "raspberry"];
let mut my_iterable_fav_fruits = my_fav_fruits.iter();
assert_eq!(my_iterable_fav_fruits.next(), Some(&"banana"));
assert_eq!(my_iterable_fav_fruits.next(), Some(&"raspberry"));
assert_eq!(my_iterable_fav_fruits.next(), None); // When it's over, it's none

// One line iteration with action
my_fav_fruits.iter().map(|x| capitalize_first(x)).collect()

// Hashmap iteration
for (key, hashvalue) in &*map {
for key in map.keys() {
for value in map.values() {

Qa'Hom Qa'Hom

Description

A recursive box is a data structure in Rust that allows for the creation of self-referential data. It is commonly used when dealing with data that needs to have a reference to itself.

Syntax

To create a recursive box in Rust, you can use the Box type along with the Rc (Reference Counted) or Arc (Atomic Reference Counted) smart pointers.

use std::rc::Rc;
use std::sync::Arc;

struct Node {
    value: i32,
    next: Option<Box<Node>>,
}

fn main() {
    // Using Rc
    let node1 = Rc::new(Node {
        value: 1,
        next: None,
    });
    let node2 = Rc::new(Node {
        value: 2,
        next: Some(Box::new(node1.clone())),
    });
    node1.next = Some(Box::new(node2.clone()));

    // Using Arc
    let node3 = Arc::new(Node {
        value: 3,
        next: None,
    });
    let node4 = Arc::new(Node {
        value: 4,
        next: Some(Box::new(node3.clone())),
    });
    node3.next = Some(Box::new(node4.clone()));
}

Explanation

In the example above, we define a Node struct that contains a value of type i32 and an optional next field of type Option<Box<Node>>. This allows each Node to have a reference to another Node.

We then create instances of Node using either Rc or Arc smart pointers. With Rc, the reference count is incremented each time a new reference is created, while with Arc, atomic operations are used to ensure thread safety.

In the main function, we create a chain of nodes by setting the next field of each node to a Some variant containing a boxed reference to the next node. This creates a self-referential data structure.

Advantages

• Allows for the creation of self-referential data structures.
• Provides memory safety by automatically managing the lifetime of references.
• Supports both single-threaded (Rc) and multi-threaded (Arc) scenarios.

Disadvantages

• Can introduce overhead due to reference counting or atomic operations.
• May require additional care to avoid reference cycles and memory leaks.

Example Use Cases

• Linked lists
• Trees
• Graphs

enum List {
Cons(i32, List),
Nil,
}

let list = Cons(1, Cons(2, Cons(3, Nil)));

Conditionals

if

if

let n = 5;
if n < 0 {
print!("{} is negative", n);
} else if n > 0 {
print!("{} is positive", n);
} else {
print!("{} is zero", n);
}

tlhIngan Hol

match

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match number {
// Match a single value
1 => println!("One!"),
// Match several values
2 | 3 | 5 | 7 | 11 => println!("This is a prime"),
// TODO ^ Try adding 13 to the list of prime values
// Match an inclusive range
13..=19 => println!("A teen"),
// Handle the rest of cases
_ => println!("Ain't special"),
}

let boolean = true;
// Match is an expression too
let binary = match boolean {
// The arms of a match must cover all the possible values
false => 0,
true => 1,
// TODO ^ Try commenting out one of these arms
};

loop (infinite)

loop (vItlhutlh)

loop {
    // code to be executed repeatedly
}

The loop keyword in Rust is used to create an infinite loop. The code inside the loop will be executed repeatedly until the loop is explicitly terminated using a break statement or an error occurs. This construct is useful when you want to continuously perform a certain task or wait for a specific condition to be met.

loop {
count += 1;
if count == 3 {
println!("three");
continue;
}
println!("{}", count);
if count == 5 {
println!("OK, that's enough");
break;
}
}

while

tlhIngan Hol

while

tlhIngan Hol

let mut n = 1;
while n < 101 {
if n % 15 == 0 {
println!("fizzbuzz");
} else if n % 5 == 0 {
println!("buzz");
} else {
println!("{}", n);
}
n += 1;
}

for

for

for n in 1..101 {
if n % 15 == 0 {
println!("fizzbuzz");
} else {
println!("{}", n);
}
}

// Use "..=" to make inclusive both ends
for n in 1..=100 {
if n % 15 == 0 {
println!("fizzbuzz");
} else if n % 3 == 0 {
println!("fizz");
} else if n % 5 == 0 {
println!("buzz");
} else {
println!("{}", n);
}
}

// ITERATIONS

let names = vec!["Bob", "Frank", "Ferris"];
//iter - Doesn't consume the collection
for name in names.iter() {
match name {
&"Ferris" => println!("There is a rustacean among us!"),
_ => println!("Hello {}", name),
}
}
//into_iter - COnsumes the collection
for name in names.into_iter() {
match name {
"Ferris" => println!("There is a rustacean among us!"),
_ => println!("Hello {}", name),
}
}
//iter_mut - This mutably borrows each element of the collection
for name in names.iter_mut() {
*name = match name {
&mut "Ferris" => "There is a rustacean among us!",
_ => "Hello",
}
}

'ej vaj

if let is a shorthand syntax in Rust that combines an if statement with a let statement. It allows you to conditionally match and destructure an enum variant or pattern match a value, and bind the matched value to a variable if the condition is true.

Here's the basic syntax:

if let Some(value) = optional_value {
    // Code to execute if optional_value is Some
} else {
    // Code to execute if optional_value is None
}

In Klingon:

'ej vaj Some(value) = optional_value {
    // optional_value vaj Some boq 'e' vItlhutlh
} else {
    // optional_value vaj None boq 'e' vItlhutlh
}

The if let statement can be used with various patterns, including tuples, structs, and enums. It provides a concise way to handle specific cases without the need for nested match statements or multiple if conditions.

let optional_word = Some(String::from("rustlings"));
if let word = optional_word {
println!("The word is: {}", word);
} else {
println!("The optional word doesn't contain anything");
}

while let

tlhIngan Hol

while let

tlhIngan Hol

let mut optional = Some(0);
// This reads: "while `let` destructures `optional` into
// `Some(i)`, evaluate the block (`{}`). Else `break`.
while let Some(i) = optional {
if i > 9 {
println!("Greater than 9, quit!");
optional = None;
} else {
println!("`i` is `{:?}`. Try again.", i);
optional = Some(i + 1);
}
// ^ Less rightward drift and doesn't require
// explicitly handling the failing case.
}

Traits

Create a new method for a type

tlhIngan Hol Translation:

cha'logh

nIvbogh lo'laHbe'ghach vItlhutlh.

trait AppendBar {
fn append_bar(self) -> Self;
}

impl AppendBar for String {
fn append_bar(self) -> Self{
format!("{}Bar", self)
}
}

let s = String::from("Foo");
let s = s.append_bar();
println!("s: {}", s);

Qap

Introduction

Tests are an essential part of software development. They help ensure that the code behaves as expected and that any changes made to the code do not introduce new bugs or issues. In this section, we will explore the basics of writing tests in Rust.

Writing Tests

In Rust, tests are written as functions with the #[test] attribute. These functions can be placed in the same file as the code being tested or in a separate file. To run the tests, we can use the cargo test command.

Here is an example of a simple test function:

#[test]
fn test_addition() {
    assert_eq!(2 + 2, 4);
}

In this example, the test_addition function uses the assert_eq! macro to check if the sum of 2 and 2 is equal to 4. If the assertion fails, the test will fail.

Running Tests

To run the tests, navigate to the project directory in the terminal and run the following command:

cargo test

This command will compile the code and run all the tests in the project. It will display the results of each test, indicating whether it passed or failed.

Test Organization

Tests can be organized into modules and submodules, just like regular code. This can help keep the tests organized and make it easier to find and run specific tests.

To create a test module, use the #[cfg(test)] attribute above the module declaration. Here is an example:

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    #[test]
    fn test_subtraction() {
        assert_eq!(5 - 3, 2);
    }
}

In this example, the test_subtraction function is placed inside a test module. To run only the tests in a specific module, use the cargo test command followed by the module path. For example:

cargo test tests

This command will run only the tests in the tests module.

Test Coverage

Test coverage is a measure of how much of the code is covered by tests. It helps identify areas of the code that are not adequately tested and may contain bugs.

To generate a test coverage report in Rust, we can use the cargo tarpaulin tool. First, add the tarpaulin crate to the dev-dependencies section of the Cargo.toml file:

[dev-dependencies]
tarpaulin = "0.17.0"

Then, run the following command to generate the test coverage report:

cargo tarpaulin --all-features

The report will show the percentage of code covered by tests and highlight any uncovered lines of code.

Conclusion

Writing tests is an important part of software development. In Rust, tests are written as functions with the #[test] attribute. They can be organized into modules and submodules to keep them organized. Test coverage can be measured using tools like cargo tarpaulin.

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
#[test]
fn you_can_assert() {
assert!(true);
assert_eq!(true, true);
assert_ne!(true, false);
}
}

Threading

Arc

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use std::sync::Arc;
let apple = Arc::new("the same apple");
for _ in 0..10 {
let apple = Arc::clone(&apple);
thread::spawn(move || {
println!("{:?}", apple);
});
}

QaD

vaj thread vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' vItlhutlhla' 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fn main() {
let status = Arc::new(Mutex::new(JobStatus { jobs_completed: 0 }));
let status_shared = Arc::clone(&status);
thread::spawn(move || {
for _ in 0..10 {
thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(250));
let mut status = status_shared.lock().unwrap();
status.jobs_completed += 1;
}
});
while status.lock().unwrap().jobs_completed < 10 {
println!("waiting... ");
thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500));
}
}