# Universal binaries & Mach-O Format

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## Basic Information Mac OS binaries usually are compiled as **universal binaries**. A **universal binary** can **support multiple architectures in the same file**. These binaries follows the **Mach-O structure** which is basically compased of: * Header * Load Commands * Data ![](<../../../.gitbook/assets/image (559).png>) ## Fat Header Search for the file with: `mdfind fat.h | grep -i mach-o | grep -E "fat.h$"`

#define FAT_MAGIC	0xcafebabe
#define FAT_CIGAM	0xbebafeca	/* NXSwapLong(FAT_MAGIC) */

struct fat_header {
	uint32_t	magic;		/* FAT_MAGIC or FAT_MAGIC_64 */
	uint32_t	nfat_arch;	/* number of structs that follow */
};

struct fat_arch {
	cpu_type_t	cputype;	/* cpu specifier (int) */
	cpu_subtype_t	cpusubtype;	/* machine specifier (int) */
	uint32_t	offset;		/* file offset to this object file */
	uint32_t	size;		/* size of this object file */
	uint32_t	align;		/* alignment as a power of 2 */
};

The header has the **magic** bytes followed by the **number** of **archs** the file **contains** (`nfat_arch`) and each arch will have a `fat_arch` struct. Check it with:

% file /bin/ls
/bin/ls: Mach-O universal binary with 2 architectures: [x86_64:Mach-O 64-bit executable x86_64] [arm64e:Mach-O 64-bit executable arm64e]
/bin/ls (for architecture x86_64):	Mach-O 64-bit executable x86_64
/bin/ls (for architecture arm64e):	Mach-O 64-bit executable arm64e

% otool -f -v /bin/ls
Fat headers
fat_magic FAT_MAGIC
nfat_arch 2
architecture x86_64
    cputype CPU_TYPE_X86_64
    cpusubtype CPU_SUBTYPE_X86_64_ALL
    capabilities 0x0
    offset 16384
    size 72896
    align 2^14 (16384)
architecture arm64e
    cputype CPU_TYPE_ARM64
    cpusubtype CPU_SUBTYPE_ARM64E
    capabilities PTR_AUTH_VERSION USERSPACE 0
    offset 98304
    size 88816
    align 2^14 (16384)

or using the [Mach-O View](https://sourceforge.net/projects/machoview/) tool:

As you may be thinking usually a universal binary compiled for 2 architectures **doubles the size** of one compiled for just 1 arch. ## **Mach-O Header** The header contains basic information about the file, such as magic bytes to identify it as a Mach-O file and information about the target architecture. You can find it in: `mdfind loader.h | grep -i mach-o | grep -E "loader.h$"` ```c #define MH_MAGIC 0xfeedface /* the mach magic number */ #define MH_CIGAM 0xcefaedfe /* NXSwapInt(MH_MAGIC) */ struct mach_header { uint32_t magic; /* mach magic number identifier */ cpu_type_t cputype; /* cpu specifier (e.g. I386) */ cpu_subtype_t cpusubtype; /* machine specifier */ uint32_t filetype; /* type of file (usage and alignment for the file) */ uint32_t ncmds; /* number of load commands */ uint32_t sizeofcmds; /* the size of all the load commands */ uint32_t flags; /* flags */ }; #define MH_MAGIC_64 0xfeedfacf /* the 64-bit mach magic number */ #define MH_CIGAM_64 0xcffaedfe /* NXSwapInt(MH_MAGIC_64) */ struct mach_header_64 { uint32_t magic; /* mach magic number identifier */ int32_t cputype; /* cpu specifier */ int32_t cpusubtype; /* machine specifier */ uint32_t filetype; /* type of file */ uint32_t ncmds; /* number of load commands */ uint32_t sizeofcmds; /* the size of all the load commands */ uint32_t flags; /* flags */ uint32_t reserved; /* reserved */ }; ``` **Filetypes**: * MH\_EXECUTE (0x2): Standard Mach-O executable * MH\_DYLIB (0x6): A Mach-O dynamic linked library (i.e. .dylib) * MH\_BUNDLE (0x8): A Mach-O bundle (i.e. .bundle) ```bash # Checking the mac header of a binary otool -arch arm64e -hv /bin/ls Mach header magic cputype cpusubtype caps filetype ncmds sizeofcmds flags MH_MAGIC_64 ARM64 E USR00 EXECUTE 19 1728 NOUNDEFS DYLDLINK TWOLEVEL PIE ``` Or using [Mach-O View](https://sourceforge.net/projects/machoview/):

## **Mach-O Load commands** This specifies the **layout of the file in memory**. It contains the **location of the symbol table**, the main thread context at the beginning of execution, and which **shared libraries** are required.\ The commands basically instruct the dynamic loader **(dyld) how to load the binary in memory.** Load commands all begin with a **load\_command** structure, defined in the previously mentioned **`loader.h`**: ```objectivec struct load_command { uint32_t cmd; /* type of load command */ uint32_t cmdsize; /* total size of command in bytes */ }; ``` There are about **50 different types of load commands** that the system handles differently. The most common ones are: `LC_SEGMENT_64`, `LC_LOAD_DYLINKER`, `LC_MAIN`, `LC_LOAD_DYLIB`, and `LC_CODE_SIGNATURE`. ### **LC\_SEGMENT/LC\_SEGMENT\_64** {% hint style="success" %} Basically, this type of Load Command define **how to load the sections** that are stored in DATA when the binary is executed. {% endhint %} These commands **define segments** that are **mapped** into the **virtual memory space** of a process when it is executed. There are **different types** of segments, such as the **\_\_TEXT** segment, which holds the executable code of a program, and the **\_\_DATA** segment, which contains data used by the process. These **segments are located in the data section** of the Mach-O file. **Each segment** can be further **divided** into multiple **sections**. The **load command structure** contains **information** about **these sections** within the respective segment. In the header first you find the **segment header**:

struct segment_command_64 { /* for 64-bit architectures */
	uint32_t	cmd;		/* LC_SEGMENT_64 */
	uint32_t	cmdsize;	/* includes sizeof section_64 structs */
	char		segname[16];	/* segment name */
	uint64_t	vmaddr;		/* memory address of this segment */
	uint64_t	vmsize;		/* memory size of this segment */
	uint64_t	fileoff;	/* file offset of this segment */
	uint64_t	filesize;	/* amount to map from the file */
	int32_t		maxprot;	/* maximum VM protection */
	int32_t		initprot;	/* initial VM protection */
	uint32_t	nsects;		/* number of sections in segment */
	uint32_t	flags;		/* flags */
};

Example of segment header:

This header defines the **number of sections whose headers appear after** it: ```c struct section_64 { /* for 64-bit architectures */ char sectname[16]; /* name of this section */ char segname[16]; /* segment this section goes in */ uint64_t addr; /* memory address of this section */ uint64_t size; /* size in bytes of this section */ uint32_t offset; /* file offset of this section */ uint32_t align; /* section alignment (power of 2) */ uint32_t reloff; /* file offset of relocation entries */ uint32_t nreloc; /* number of relocation entries */ uint32_t flags; /* flags (section type and attributes)*/ uint32_t reserved1; /* reserved (for offset or index) */ uint32_t reserved2; /* reserved (for count or sizeof) */ uint32_t reserved3; /* reserved */ }; ``` Example of **section header**:

If you **add** the **section offset** (0x37DC) + the **offset** where the **arch starts**, in this case `0x18000` --> `0x37DC + 0x18000 = 0x1B7DC`

It's also possible to get **headers information** from the **command line** with: ```bash otool -lv /bin/ls ``` Common segments loaded by this cmd: * **`__PAGEZERO`:** It instructs the kernel to **map** the **address zero** so it **cannot be read from, written to, or executed**. The maxprot and minprot variables in the structure are set to zero to indicate there are **no read-write-execute rights on this page**. * This allocation is important to **mitigate NULL pointer dereference vulnerabilities**. * **`__TEXT`**: Contains **executable** **code** and **data** that is **read-only.** Common sections of this segment: * `__text`: Compiled binary code * `__const`: Constant data * `__cstring`: String constants * `__stubs` and `__stubs_helper`: Involved during the dynamic library loading process * **`__DATA`**: Contains data that is **writable.** * `__data`: Global variables (that have been initialized) * `__bss`: Static variables (that have not been initialized) * `__objc_*` (\_\_objc\_classlist, \_\_objc\_protolist, etc): Information used by the Objective-C runtime * **`__LINKEDIT`**: Contains information for the linker (dyld) such as, "symbol, string, and relocation table entries." * **`__OBJC`**: Contains information used by the Objective-C runtime. Though this information might also be found in the \_\_DATA segment, within various in \_\_objc\_\* sections. ### **`LC_MAIN`** Contains the entrypoint in the **entryoff attribute.** At load time, **dyld** simply **adds** this value to the (in-memory) **base of the binary**, then **jumps** to this instruction to start execution of the binary’s code. ### **LC\_CODE\_SIGNATURE** Contains information about the **code signature of the Macho-O file**. It only contains an **offset** that **points** to the **signature blob**. This is typically at the very end of the file. ### **LC\_LOAD\_DYLINKER** Contains the **path to the dynamic linker executable** that maps shared libraries into the process address space. The **value is always set to `/usr/lib/dyld`**. It’s important to note that in macOS, dylib mapping happens in **user mode**, not in kernel mode. ### **`LC_LOAD_DYLIB`** This load command describes a **dynamic** **library** dependency which **instructs** the **loader** (dyld) to **load and link said library**. There is a LC\_LOAD\_DYLIB load command **for each library** that the Mach-O binary requires. * This load command is a structure of type **`dylib_command`** (which contains a struct dylib, describing the actual dependent dynamic library): ```objectivec struct dylib_command { uint32_t cmd; /* LC_LOAD_{,WEAK_}DYLIB */ uint32_t cmdsize; /* includes pathname string */ struct dylib dylib; /* the library identification */ }; struct dylib { union lc_str name; /* library's path name */ uint32_t timestamp; /* library's build time stamp */ uint32_t current_version; /* library's current version number */ uint32_t compatibility_version; /* library's compatibility vers number*/ }; ``` ![](<../../../.gitbook/assets/image (558).png>) You could also get this info from the cli with: ```bash otool -L /bin/ls /bin/ls: /usr/lib/libutil.dylib (compatibility version 1.0.0, current version 1.0.0) /usr/lib/libncurses.5.4.dylib (compatibility version 5.4.0, current version 5.4.0) /usr/lib/libSystem.B.dylib (compatibility version 1.0.0, current version 1319.0.0) ``` Some potential malware related libraries are: * **DiskArbitration**: Monitoring USB drives * **AVFoundation:** Capture audio and video * **CoreWLAN**: Wifi scans. {% hint style="info" %} A Mach-O binary can contain one or **more** **constructors**, that will be **executed** **before** the address specified in **LC\_MAIN**.\ The offsets of any constructors are held in the **\_\_mod\_init\_func** section of the **\_\_DATA\_CONST** segment. {% endhint %} ## **Mach-O Data** The heart of the file is the final region, the data, which consists of a number of segments as laid out in the load-commands region. **Each segment can contain a number of data sections**. Each of these sections **contains code or data** of one particular type. {% hint style="success" %} The data is basically the part containing all the information loaded by the load commands LC\_SEGMENTS\_64 {% endhint %} ![](<../../../.gitbook/assets/image (507) (3).png>) This includes: * **Function table:** Which holds information about the program functions. * **Symbol table**: Which contains information about the external function used by the binary * It could also contain internal function, variable names as well and more. To check it you could use the [**Mach-O View**](https://sourceforge.net/projects/machoview/) tool:

Or from the cli: ```bash size -m /bin/ls ```

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