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GITBOOK-4418: No subject
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4 changed files with 83 additions and 17 deletions
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@ -148,7 +148,7 @@
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* [macOS GCD - Grand Central Dispatch](macos-hardening/macos-security-and-privilege-escalation/macos-gcd-grand-central-dispatch.md)
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* [macOS Kernel & System Extensions](macos-hardening/macos-security-and-privilege-escalation/mac-os-architecture/README.md)
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* [macOS IOKit](macos-hardening/macos-security-and-privilege-escalation/mac-os-architecture/macos-iokit.md)
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* [macOS Kernel Extensions](macos-hardening/macos-security-and-privilege-escalation/mac-os-architecture/macos-kernel-extensions.md)
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* [macOS Kernel Extensions & Debugging](macos-hardening/macos-security-and-privilege-escalation/mac-os-architecture/macos-kernel-extensions.md)
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* [macOS Kernel Vulnerabilities](macos-hardening/macos-security-and-privilege-escalation/mac-os-architecture/macos-kernel-vulnerabilities.md)
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* [macOS System Extensions](macos-hardening/macos-security-and-privilege-escalation/mac-os-architecture/macos-system-extensions.md)
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* [macOS Network Services & Protocols](macos-hardening/macos-security-and-privilege-escalation/macos-protocols.md)
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@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
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# Bypass Python sandboxes
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{% hint style="success" %}
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Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
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Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
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<details>
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@ -732,11 +732,6 @@ You can check the output of this script on this page:
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If you **send** a **string** to python that is going to be **formatted**, you can use `{}` to access **python internal information.** You can use the previous examples to access globals or builtins for example.
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{% hint style="info" %}
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However, there is a **limitation**, you can only use the symbols `.[]`, so you **won't be able to execute arbitrary code**, just to read information.\
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_**If you know how to execute code through this vulnerability, please contact me.**_
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{% endhint %}
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```python
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# Example from https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/vulnerability-in-str-format-in-python/
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CONFIG = {
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@ -802,8 +797,56 @@ Check also the following page for gadgets that will r**ead sensitive information
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# Access an element through several links
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{whoami.__globals__[server].__dict__[bridge].__dict__[db].__dict__}
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# Example from https://corgi.rip/posts/buckeye-writeups/
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secret_variable = "clueless"
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x = new_user.User(username='{i.find.__globals__[so].mapperlib.sys.modules[__main__].secret_variable}',password='lol')
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str(x) # Out: clueless
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```
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### From format to RCE loading libraries
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According to the [**TypeMonkey chall from this writeup**](https://corgi.rip/posts/buckeye-writeups/) it's possible to load arbitrary libraries from disk abusing the format string vulnerability in python.
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As reminder, every time an action is performed in python some function is executed. For example `2*3` will execute **`(2).mul(3)`** or **`{'a':'b'}['a']`** will be **`{'a':'b'}.__getitem__('a')`**.
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You have more like this in the section [**Python execution without calls**](./#python-execution-without-calls).
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A python format string vuln doesn't allow to execute function (it's doesn't allow to use parenthesis), so it's not possible to get RCE like `'{0.system("/bin/sh")}'.format(os)`.\
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However, it's possible to use `[]`. Therefore, if a common python library has a **`__getitem__`** or **`__getattr__`** method that executes arbitrary code, it's possible to abuse them to get RCE.
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Looking for a gadget like that in python, the writeup purposes this [**Github search query**](https://github.com/search?q=repo%3Apython%2Fcpython+%2Fdef+%28\_\_getitem\_\_%7C\_\_getattr\_\_%29%2F+path%3ALib%2F+-path%3ALib%2Ftest%2F\&type=code). Where he found this [one](https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/43303e362e3a7e2d96747d881021a14c7f7e3d0b/Lib/ctypes/\_\_init\_\_.py#L463):
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```python
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class LibraryLoader(object):
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def __init__(self, dlltype):
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self._dlltype = dlltype
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def __getattr__(self, name):
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if name[0] == '_':
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raise AttributeError(name)
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try:
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dll = self._dlltype(name)
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except OSError:
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raise AttributeError(name)
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setattr(self, name, dll)
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return dll
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def __getitem__(self, name):
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return getattr(self, name)
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cdll = LibraryLoader(CDLL)
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pydll = LibraryLoader(PyDLL)
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```
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This gadget allows to **load a library from disk**. Therefore, it's needed to somehow **write or upload the library to load** correctly compiled to the attacked server.
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```python
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'{i.find.__globals__[so].mapperlib.sys.modules[ctypes].cdll[/path/to/file]}'
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```
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The challenge actually abuses another vulnerability in the server that allows to create arbitrary files in the servers disk.
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## Dissecting Python Objects
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{% hint style="info" %}
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@ -1118,10 +1161,9 @@ will be bypassed
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* [https://nedbatchelder.com/blog/201206/eval\_really\_is\_dangerous.html](https://nedbatchelder.com/blog/201206/eval\_really\_is\_dangerous.html)
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* [https://infosecwriteups.com/how-assertions-can-get-you-hacked-da22c84fb8f6](https://infosecwriteups.com/how-assertions-can-get-you-hacked-da22c84fb8f6)
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{% hint style="success" %}
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Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
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Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
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<details>
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@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
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# macOS Kernel Extensions
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# macOS Kernel Extensions & Debugging
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{% hint style="success" %}
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Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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@ -156,6 +156,10 @@ kextex_all kernelcache.release.iphone14.e
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nm -a binaries/com.apple.security.sandbox | wc -l
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```
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## Debugging
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## Referencias
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* [https://www.makeuseof.com/how-to-enable-third-party-kernel-extensions-apple-silicon-mac/](https://www.makeuseof.com/how-to-enable-third-party-kernel-extensions-apple-silicon-mac/)
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@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
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# hop-by-hop headers
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{% hint style="success" %}
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Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
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Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
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<details>
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@ -15,38 +15,58 @@ Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-s
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</details>
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{% endhint %}
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**This is a summary of the post [https://nathandavison.com/blog/abusing-http-hop-by-hop-request-headers](https://nathandavison.com/blog/abusing-http-hop-by-hop-request-headers)**
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<figure><img src="https://files.gitbook.com/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2F-L_2uGJGU7AVNRcqRvEi%2Fuploads%2FelPCTwoecVdnsfjxCZtN%2Fimage.png?alt=media&token=9ee4ff3e-92dc-471c-abfe-1c25e446a6ed" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
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[**RootedCON**](https://www.rootedcon.com/) is the most relevant cybersecurity event in **Spain** and one of the most important in **Europe**. With **the mission of promoting technical knowledge**, this congress is a boiling meeting point for technology and cybersecurity professionals in every discipline.
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{% embed url="https://www.rootedcon.com/" %}
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***
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**This is a summary of the post** [**https://nathandavison.com/blog/abusing-http-hop-by-hop-request-headers**](https://nathandavison.com/blog/abusing-http-hop-by-hop-request-headers)
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Hop-by-hop headers are specific to a single transport-level connection, used primarily in HTTP/1.1 for managing data between two nodes (like client-proxy or proxy-proxy), and are not meant to be forwarded. Standard hop-by-hop headers include `Keep-Alive`, `Transfer-Encoding`, `TE`, `Connection`, `Trailer`, `Upgrade`, `Proxy-Authorization`, and `Proxy-Authenticate`, as defined in [RFC 2616](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616#section-13.5.1). Additional headers can be designated as hop-by-hop via the `Connection` header.
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### Abusing Hop-by-Hop Headers
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Improper management of hop-by-hop headers by proxies can lead to security issues. While proxies are expected to remove these headers, not all do, creating potential vulnerabilities.
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### Testing for Hop-by-Hop Header Handling
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The handling of hop-by-hop headers can be tested by observing changes in server responses when specific headers are marked as hop-by-hop. Tools and scripts can automate this process, identifying how proxies manage these headers and potentially uncovering misconfigurations or proxy behaviors.
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Abusing hop-by-hop headers can lead to various security implications. Below are a couple of examples demonstrating how these headers can be manipulated for potential attacks:
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### Bypassing Security Controls with `X-Forwarded-For`
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An attacker can manipulate the `X-Forwarded-For` header to bypass IP-based access controls. This header is often used by proxies to track the originating IP address of a client. However, if a proxy treats this header as hop-by-hop and forwards it without proper validation, an attacker can spoof their IP address.
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**Attack Scenario:**
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1. The attacker sends an HTTP request to a web application behind a proxy, including a fake IP address in the `X-Forwarded-For` header.
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2. The attacker also includes the `Connection: close, X-Forwarded-For` header, prompting the proxy to treat `X-Forwarded-For` as hop-by-hop.
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3. The misconfigured proxy forwards the request to the web application without the spoofed `X-Forwarded-For` header.
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4. The web application, not seeing the original `X-Forwarded-For` header, might consider the request as coming directly from a trusted proxy, potentially allowing unauthorized access.
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### Cache Poisoning via Hop-by-Hop Header Injection
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If a cache server incorrectly caches content based on hop-by-hop headers, an attacker could inject malicious headers to poison the cache. This would serve incorrect or malicious content to users requesting the same resource.
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**Attack Scenario:**
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1. An attacker sends a request to a web application with a hop-by-hop header that should not be cached (e.g., `Connection: close, Cookie`).
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2. The poorly configured cache server does not remove the hop-by-hop header and caches the response specific to the attacker's session.
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3. Future users requesting the same resource receive the cached response, which was tailored for the attacker, potentially leading to session hijacking or exposure of sensitive information.
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<figure><img src="https://files.gitbook.com/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2F-L_2uGJGU7AVNRcqRvEi%2Fuploads%2FelPCTwoecVdnsfjxCZtN%2Fimage.png?alt=media&token=9ee4ff3e-92dc-471c-abfe-1c25e446a6ed" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
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[**RootedCON**](https://www.rootedcon.com/) is the most relevant cybersecurity event in **Spain** and one of the most important in **Europe**. With **the mission of promoting technical knowledge**, this congress is a boiling meeting point for technology and cybersecurity professionals in every discipline.
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{% embed url="https://www.rootedcon.com/" %}
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{% hint style="success" %}
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Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
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Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
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<details>
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