GITBOOK-4403: No subject

binary-exploitation/libc-heap/README.md

@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-# Heap
+# Libc Heap
 
 ## Heap Basics
 
@@ -498,15 +498,15 @@ int main() {
 
 Debugging the previous example it's possible to see how at the beginning there is only 1 arena:
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 Then, after calling the first thread, the one that calls malloc, a new arena is created:
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 and inside of it some chunks can be found:
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (2).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (2) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 ## Bins & Memory Allocations/Frees
 

binary-exploitation/libc-heap/heap-memory-functions/unlink.md

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 # unlink
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
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+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 
@@ -69,7 +69,7 @@ unlink_chunk (mstate av, mchunkptr p)
 
 Check this great graphical explanation of the unlink process:
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (3).png" alt=""><figcaption><p><a href="https://ctf-wiki.mahaloz.re/pwn/linux/glibc-heap/implementation/figure/unlink_smallbin_intro.png">https://ctf-wiki.mahaloz.re/pwn/linux/glibc-heap/implementation/figure/unlink_smallbin_intro.png</a></p></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (3) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption><p><a href="https://ctf-wiki.mahaloz.re/pwn/linux/glibc-heap/implementation/figure/unlink_smallbin_intro.png">https://ctf-wiki.mahaloz.re/pwn/linux/glibc-heap/implementation/figure/unlink_smallbin_intro.png</a></p></figcaption></figure>
 
 ### Security Checks
 
@@ -94,8 +94,8 @@ Heap leaks:
 * If P is in the doubly linked list, both `fd` and `bk` will be pointing to an available chunk in the heap
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
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 <details>
 

binary-exploitation/rop-return-oriented-programing/brop-blind-return-oriented-programming.md

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 # BROP - Blind Return Oriented Programming
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
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+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ This attack is based on the following scenario:
 
 ### **1. Find vulnerable offset** sending one more character until a malfunction of the server is detected
 
-### **2. Brute-force canary** to leak it&#x20;
+### **2. Brute-force canary** to leak it
 
 ### **3. Brute-force stored RBP and RIP** addresses in the stack to leak them
 
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ This gadget basically allows to confirm that something interesting was executed
 
 This technique uses the [**ret2csu**](ret2csu.md) gadget. And this is because if you access this gadget in the middle of some instructions you get gadgets to control **`rsi`** and **`rdi`**:
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt="" width="278"><figcaption><p><a href="https://www.scs.stanford.edu/brop/bittau-brop.pdf">https://www.scs.stanford.edu/brop/bittau-brop.pdf</a></p></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt="" width="278"><figcaption><p><a href="https://www.scs.stanford.edu/brop/bittau-brop.pdf">https://www.scs.stanford.edu/brop/bittau-brop.pdf</a></p></figcaption></figure>
 
 These would be the gadgets:
 
@@ -88,9 +88,9 @@ It's possible to check for this by calling each entry of the PLT table or by usi
 * strcmp(\<non read addr>, \<read addr>) -> crash
   * `b'A' * offset + canary + rbp + (BROP + 0x9) + RIP + (BROP + 0x7) + p64(0x300) + p64(0x0) + (PLT + 0xb ) + p64(ENTRY) + STOP` -> Will crash
 * strcmp(\<read addr>, \<non read addr>) -> crash
-  * `b'A' * offset + canary + rbp + (BROP + 0x9) + p64(0x300) + (BROP + 0x7) + RIP + p64(0x0) + (PLT + 0xb ) + p64(ENTRY) + STOP`&#x20;
+  * `b'A' * offset + canary + rbp + (BROP + 0x9) + p64(0x300) + (BROP + 0x7) + RIP + p64(0x0) + (PLT + 0xb ) + p64(ENTRY) + STOP`
 * strcmp(\<read addr>, \<read addr>) -> no crash
-  * `b'A' * offset + canary + rbp + (BROP + 0x9) + RIP + (BROP + 0x7) + RIP + p64(0x0) + (PLT + 0xb ) + p64(ENTRY) + STOP`&#x20;
+  * `b'A' * offset + canary + rbp + (BROP + 0x9) + RIP + (BROP + 0x7) + RIP + p64(0x0) + (PLT + 0xb ) + p64(ENTRY) + STOP`
 
 Remember that:
 
@@ -136,8 +136,8 @@ Behaviour signatures to find those functions:
 * [https://www.ctfrecipes.com/pwn/stack-exploitation/arbitrary-code-execution/code-reuse-attack/blind-return-oriented-programming-brop](https://www.ctfrecipes.com/pwn/stack-exploitation/arbitrary-code-execution/code-reuse-attack/blind-return-oriented-programming-brop)
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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 <details>
 

binary-exploitation/rop-return-oriented-programing/ret2csu.md

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 # Ret2csu
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-s
 
 ## [https://www.scs.stanford.edu/brop/bittau-brop.pdf](https://www.scs.stanford.edu/brop/bittau-brop.pdf)Basic Information
 
-**ret2csu** is a hacking technique used when you're trying to take control of a program but can't find the **gadgets** you usually use to manipulate the program's behavior.&#x20;
+**ret2csu** is a hacking technique used when you're trying to take control of a program but can't find the **gadgets** you usually use to manipulate the program's behavior.
 
 When a program uses certain libraries (like libc), it has some built-in functions for managing how different pieces of the program talk to each other. Among these functions are some hidden gems that can act as our missing gadgets, especially one called `__libc_csu_init`.
 
@@ -88,7 +88,7 @@ gef➤  search-pattern 0x400560
 
 Another way to control **`rdi`** and **`rsi`** from the ret2csu gadget is by accessing it specific offsets:
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (2) (1) (1).png" alt="" width="283"><figcaption><p><a href="https://www.scs.stanford.edu/brop/bittau-brop.pdf">https://www.scs.stanford.edu/brop/bittau-brop.pdf</a></p></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (2) (1) (1) (1).png" alt="" width="283"><figcaption><p><a href="https://www.scs.stanford.edu/brop/bittau-brop.pdf">https://www.scs.stanford.edu/brop/bittau-brop.pdf</a></p></figcaption></figure>
 
 Check this page for more info:
 
@@ -196,8 +196,8 @@ target.interactive()
 Usually these cases are also vulnerable to [**ret2plt**](../common-binary-protections-and-bypasses/aslr/ret2plt.md) + [**ret2lib**](ret2lib/), but sometimes you need to control more parameters than are easily controlled with the gadgets you find directly in libc. For example, the `write()` function requires three parameters, and **finding gadgets to set all these directly might not be possible**.
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
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+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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 <details>
 

binary-exploitation/rop-return-oriented-programing/srop-sigreturn-oriented-programming/srop-arm64.md

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 # SROP - ARM64
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
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 <details>
 
@@ -157,7 +157,7 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv) {
 
 In the section **`vdso`** it's possible to find a call to **`sigreturn`** in the offset **`0x7b0`**:
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (17).png" alt="" width="563"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (17) (1).png" alt="" width="563"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 Therefore, if leaked, it's possible to **use this address to access a `sigreturn`** if the binary isn't loading it:
 
@@ -203,8 +203,8 @@ And to bypass the address of `/bin/sh` you could create several env variables po
 {% endcontent-ref %}
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
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 <details>
 

generic-methodologies-and-resources/external-recon-methodology/README.md

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 # External Recon Methodology
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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 <details>
 
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-s
 </details>
 {% endhint %}
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
@@ -731,15 +731,15 @@ There are several tools out there that will perform part of the proposed actions
 
 * All free courses of [**@Jhaddix**](https://twitter.com/Jhaddix) like [**The Bug Hunter's Methodology v4.0 - Recon Edition**](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p4JgIu1mceI)
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
 {% embed url="https://www.stmcyber.com/careers" %}
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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 <details>
 

generic-methodologies-and-resources/pentesting-methodology.md

@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data
 </details>
 {% endhint %}
 
-<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
@@ -151,7 +151,7 @@ Check also the page about [**NTLM**](../windows-hardening/ntlm/), it could be ve
 * [**CBC-MAC**](../crypto-and-stego/cipher-block-chaining-cbc-mac-priv.md)
 * [**Padding Oracle**](../crypto-and-stego/padding-oracle-priv.md)
 
-<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 

linux-hardening/bypass-bash-restrictions/bypass-fs-protections-read-only-no-exec-distroless/README.md

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 # Bypass FS protections: read-only / no-exec / Distroless
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
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+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-s
 </details>
 {% endhint %}
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
@@ -134,15 +134,15 @@ However, in this kind of containers these protections will usually exist, but yo
 
 You can find **examples** on how to **exploit some RCE vulnerabilities** to get scripting languages **reverse shells** and execute binaries from memory in [**https://github.com/carlospolop/DistrolessRCE**](https://github.com/carlospolop/DistrolessRCE).
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
 {% embed url="https://www.stmcyber.com/careers" %}
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 

network-services-pentesting/pentesting-smtp/smtp-smuggling.md

@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ This type of vulnerability was [**originally discovered in this post**](https://
 
 This is because in the SMTP protocol, the **data of the message** to be sent in the email is controlled by a user (attacker) which could send specially crafted data abusing differences in parsers that will smuggle extra emails in the receptor. Take a look to this illustrated example from the original post:
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (8) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption><p><a href="https://sec-consult.com/fileadmin/user_upload/sec-consult/Dynamisch/Blogartikel/2023_12/SMTP_Smuggling-Overview__09_.png">https://sec-consult.com/fileadmin/user_upload/sec-consult/Dynamisch/Blogartikel/2023_12/SMTP_Smuggling-Overview__09_.png</a></p></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (8) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption><p><a href="https://sec-consult.com/fileadmin/user_upload/sec-consult/Dynamisch/Blogartikel/2023_12/SMTP_Smuggling-Overview__09_.png">https://sec-consult.com/fileadmin/user_upload/sec-consult/Dynamisch/Blogartikel/2023_12/SMTP_Smuggling-Overview__09_.png</a></p></figcaption></figure>
 
 ### How
 

network-services-pentesting/pentesting-snmp/README.md

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 # 161,162,10161,10162/udp - Pentesting SNMP
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-s
 </details>
 {% endhint %}
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
@@ -261,7 +261,7 @@ If there is an ACL that only allows some IPs to query the SMNP service, you can
 * snmpd.conf
 * snmp-config.xml
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
@@ -306,8 +306,8 @@ Entry_5:
 ```
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 

network-services-pentesting/pentesting-snmp/cisco-snmp.md

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 # Cisco SNMP
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-s
 </details>
 {% endhint %}
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
@@ -56,15 +56,15 @@ msf6 auxiliary(scanner/snmp/snmp_enum) > exploit
 
 * [https://medium.com/@in9uz/cisco-nightmare-pentesting-cisco-networks-like-a-devil-f4032eb437b9](https://medium.com/@in9uz/cisco-nightmare-pentesting-cisco-networks-like-a-devil-f4032eb437b9)
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
 {% embed url="https://www.stmcyber.com/careers" %}
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 

network-services-pentesting/pentesting-web/README.md

@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" d
 </details>
 {% endhint %}
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
@@ -367,7 +367,7 @@ Find more info about web vulns in:
 
 You can use tools such as [https://github.com/dgtlmoon/changedetection.io](https://github.com/dgtlmoon/changedetection.io) to monitor pages for modifications that might insert vulnerabilities.
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 

network-services-pentesting/pentesting-web/drupal/drupal-rce.md

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 # Drupal RCE
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 
@@ -103,13 +103,13 @@ In the _Extend_ menu (/admin/modules), you can activate what appear to be plugin
 
 Before activation:
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (4).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (4) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 After activation:
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (2) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (2) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 ### Part 2 (leveraging feature _Configuration synchronization_) <a href="#part-2-leveraging-feature-configuration-synchronization" id="part-2-leveraging-feature-configuration-synchronization"></a>
 
@@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ allow_insecure_uploads: false
 
 ```
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (3) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (3) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 To:
 
@@ -150,7 +150,7 @@ allow_insecure_uploads: true
 
 ```
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (4) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (4) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 **Patch field.field.media.document.field\_media\_document.yml**
 
@@ -168,7 +168,7 @@ File: field.field.media.document.field\_media\_document.yml
 ...
 ```
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (5).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (5) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 To:
 
@@ -186,7 +186,7 @@ File: field.field.media.document.field\_media\_document.yml
 
 > I don’t use it in this blogpost but it is noted that it is possible to define the entry `file_directory` in an arbitrary way and that it is vulnerable to a path traversal attack (so we can go back up within the Drupal filesystem tree).
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (6).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (6) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 ### Part 3 (leveraging feature _Add Document_) <a href="#part-3-leveraging-feature-add-document" id="part-3-leveraging-feature-add-document"></a>
 
@@ -220,7 +220,7 @@ Why name our Webshell LICENSE.txt?
 
 Simply because if we take the following file, for example [core/LICENSE.txt](https://github.com/drupal/drupal/blob/11.x/core/LICENSE.txt) (which is already present in the Drupal core), we have a file of 339 lines and 17.6 KB in size, which is perfect for adding a small snippet of PHP code in the middle (since the file is big enough).
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (7).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (7) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 File: Patched LICENSE.txt
 
@@ -257,21 +257,21 @@ programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the author
 
 First, we leverage the _Add Document_ (/media/add/document) feature to upload our file containing the Apache directives (.htaccess).
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (8).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (8) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (9).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (9) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (10).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (10) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 **Part 3.2 (upload file LICENSE.txt)**
 
 Then, we leverage the _Add Document_ (/media/add/document) feature again to upload a Webshell hidden within a license file.
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (11).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (11) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (12).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (12) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (13).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (13) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 ### Part 4 (interaction with the Webshell) <a href="#part-4-interaction-with-the-webshell" id="part-4-interaction-with-the-webshell"></a>
 
@@ -279,21 +279,21 @@ The last part consists of interacting with the Webshell.
 
 As shown in the following screenshot, if the cookie expected by our Webshell is not defined, we get the subsequent result when consulting the file via a Web browser.
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (14).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (14) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 When the attacker sets the cookie, he can interact with the Webshell and execute any commands he wants.
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (15).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (15) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 And as you can see in the logs, it looks like only a txt file has been requested.
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (16).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (16) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 Thank you for taking the time to read this article, I hope it will help you get some shells.
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 

network-services-pentesting/pentesting-web/electron-desktop-apps/electron-contextisolation-rce-via-ipc.md

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 # Electron contextIsolation RCE via IPC
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ If the preload script exposes an IPC endpoint from the main.js file, the rendere
 
 Example from [https://speakerdeck.com/masatokinugawa/how-i-hacked-microsoft-teams-and-got-150000-dollars-in-pwn2own?slide=21](https://speakerdeck.com/masatokinugawa/how-i-hacked-microsoft-teams-and-got-150000-dollars-in-pwn2own?slide=21) (you have the full example of how MS Teams was abusing from XSS to RCE in those slides, this is just a very basic example):
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (9) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (9) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 ## Example 1
 
@@ -114,8 +114,8 @@ window.electronSend = (event, data) => {
 ```
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 

network-services-pentesting/pentesting-web/jira.md

@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" d
 </details>
 {% endhint %}
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
@@ -135,7 +135,7 @@ These are some of the actions a malicious plugin could perform:
 
 
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 

pentesting-web/browser-extension-pentesting-methodology/README.md

@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ Browser extensions are written in JavaScript and loaded by the browser in the ba
 
 Extension layouts look best when visualised and consists of three components. Let’s look at each component in depth.
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (16) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption><p><a href="http://webblaze.cs.berkeley.edu/papers/Extensions.pdf">http://webblaze.cs.berkeley.edu/papers/Extensions.pdf</a></p></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (16) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption><p><a href="http://webblaze.cs.berkeley.edu/papers/Extensions.pdf">http://webblaze.cs.berkeley.edu/papers/Extensions.pdf</a></p></figcaption></figure>
 
 ### **Content Scripts**
 

pentesting-web/csrf-cross-site-request-forgery.md

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 # CSRF (Cross Site Request Forgery)
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ To exploit a CSRF vulnerability, several conditions must be met:
 
 You could **capture the request in Burp** and check CSRF protections and to test from the bowser you can click on **Copy as fetch** and check the request:
 
-<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (11) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (11) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 ### Defending Against CSRF
 
@@ -640,8 +640,8 @@ Stay informed with the newest bug bounties launching and crucial platform update
 **Join us on** [**Discord**](https://discord.com/invite/N3FrSbmwdy) and start collaborating with top hackers today!
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 

pentesting-web/file-upload/README.md

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 # File Upload
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-s
 </details>
 {% endhint %}
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
@@ -341,15 +341,15 @@ More information in: [https://medium.com/swlh/polyglot-files-a-hackers-best-frie
 * [https://www.idontplaydarts.com/2012/06/encoding-web-shells-in-png-idat-chunks/](https://www.idontplaydarts.com/2012/06/encoding-web-shells-in-png-idat-chunks/)
 * [https://medium.com/swlh/polyglot-files-a-hackers-best-friend-850bf812dd8a](https://medium.com/swlh/polyglot-files-a-hackers-best-friend-850bf812dd8a)
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
 {% embed url="https://www.stmcyber.com/careers" %}
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 

pentesting-web/hacking-jwt-json-web-tokens.md

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 # JWT Vulnerabilities (Json Web Tokens)
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-s
 </details>
 {% endhint %}
 
-<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
@@ -282,15 +282,15 @@ The token's expiry is checked using the "exp" Payload claim. Given that JWTs are
 
 {% embed url="https://github.com/ticarpi/jwt_tool" %}
 
-<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
 {% embed url="https://www.stmcyber.com/careers" %}
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 

pentesting-web/hacking-with-cookies/README.md

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 # Cookies Hacking
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 
@@ -15,7 +15,6 @@ Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-s
 </details>
 {% endhint %}
 
-
 ## Cookie Attributes
 
 Cookies come with several attributes that control their behavior in the user's browser. Here’s a rundown of these attributes in a more passive voice:
@@ -105,11 +104,11 @@ It is important to note that cookies prefixed with `__Host-` are not allowed to
 
 So, one of the protection of `__Host-` prefixed cookies is to prevent them from being overwritten from subdomains. Preventing for example [**Cookie Tossing attacks**](cookie-tossing.md). In the talk [**Cookie Crumbles: Unveiling Web Session Integrity Vulnerabilities**](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F\_wAzF4a7Xg) ([**paper**](https://www.usenix.org/system/files/usenixsecurity23-squarcina.pdf)) it's presented that it was possible to set \_\_HOST- prefixed cookies from subdomain, by tricking the parser, for example, adding "=" at the beggining or at the beginig and the end...:
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (6) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (6) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 Or in PHP it was possible to add **other characters at the beginning** of the cookie name that were going to be **replaced by underscore** characters, allowing to overwrite `__HOST-` cookies:
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (7) (1).png" alt="" width="373"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (7) (1) (1).png" alt="" width="373"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 ## Cookies Attacks
 
@@ -275,10 +274,9 @@ There should be a pattern (with the size of a used block). So, knowing how are a
 * [https://blog.ankursundara.com/cookie-bugs/](https://blog.ankursundara.com/cookie-bugs/)
 * [https://www.linkedin.com/posts/rickey-martin-24533653\_100daysofhacking-penetrationtester-ethicalhacking-activity-7016286424526180352-bwDd](https://www.linkedin.com/posts/rickey-martin-24533653\_100daysofhacking-penetrationtester-ethicalhacking-activity-7016286424526180352-bwDd)
 
-
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 

pentesting-web/ldap-injection.md

@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 ## LDAP Injection
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-s
 </details>
 {% endhint %}
 
-<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
@@ -236,15 +236,15 @@ intitle:"phpLDAPadmin" inurl:cmd.php
 
 {% embed url="https://github.com/swisskyrepo/PayloadsAllTheThings/tree/master/LDAP%20Injection" %}
 
-<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
 {% embed url="https://www.stmcyber.com/careers" %}
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 

pentesting-web/sql-injection/postgresql-injection/README.md

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 # PostgreSQL injection
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-s
 </details>
 {% endhint %}
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
@@ -107,15 +107,15 @@ SELECT $$hacktricks$$;
 SELECT $TAG$hacktricks$TAG$;
 ```
 
-<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
 {% embed url="https://www.stmcyber.com/careers" %}
 
 {% hint style="success" %}
-Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="/.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
-Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="/.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
+Learn & practice AWS Hacking:<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training AWS Red Team Expert (ARTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/arte)<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/arte.png" alt="" data-size="line">\
+Learn & practice GCP Hacking: <img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**<img src="../../../.gitbook/assets/grte.png" alt="" data-size="line">](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)
 
 <details>
 

pentesting-web/xss-cross-site-scripting/README.md

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # XSS (Cross Site Scripting)
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 
@@ -1574,7 +1574,7 @@ Find **more SVG payloads in** [**https://github.com/allanlw/svg-cheatsheet**](ht
 * [https://gist.github.com/rvrsh3ll/09a8b933291f9f98e8ec](https://gist.github.com/rvrsh3ll/09a8b933291f9f98e8ec)
 * [https://netsec.expert/2020/02/01/xss-in-2020.html](https://netsec.expert/2020/02/01/xss-in-2020.html)
 
-<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+<figure><img src="../../.gitbook/assets/image (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
 If you are interested in **hacking career** and hack the unhackable - **we are hiring!** (_fluent polish written and spoken required_).
 

todo/llm-training-data-preparation.md

@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
 # LLM Training - Data Preparation
 
+**These are my notes from the book** [**https://www.manning.com/books/build-a-large-language-model-from-scratch**](https://www.manning.com/books/build-a-large-language-model-from-scratch) **(very recommended)**
+
 ## Pretraining
 
 The pre-training phase of a LLM is the moment where the LLM gets a lot of data that makes the LLM learn about the language and everything in general. This base is usually later used to fine-tune it in order to specialise the model into a specific topic.
@@ -292,76 +294,189 @@ input_embeddings = token_embeddings + pos_embeddings
 print(input_embeddings.shape) # torch.Size([8, 4, 256])
 ```
 
-## Attention Mechanisms & Self-Attention
+## Attention Mechanisms and Self-Attention in Neural Networks
 
-These are the applied weights that helps select which inputs affects the most to one token. As an example, a translator from one language to another will need to have the context not only of the current sentence but of the complete context in order to properly translate each word.
+Attention mechanisms allow neural networks to focus on specific parts of the input when generating each part of the output. They assign different weights to different inputs, helping the model decide which inputs are most relevant to the task at hand. This is crucial in tasks like machine translation, where understanding the context of the entire sentence is necessary for accurate translation.
 
-Moreover, the concept **self-attention** means all the weights the tokens in the text have over to a specific one (the more related they are the bigger weight they will have).\
-This means, that whenever we are trying to predict the next token it's not just a matter of the previous token weights and their position weights, but also about the weight respect to the word to predict.
+### Understanding Attention Mechanisms
 
-In order to get the weight of a token over a specific token, each dimension weight of each token is multiplied by the weight from that token over the token and the results are added.
+In traditional sequence-to-sequence models used for language translation, the model encodes an input sequence into a fixed-size context vector. However, this approach struggles with long sentences because the fixed-size context vector may not capture all necessary information. Attention mechanisms address this limitation by allowing the model to consider all input tokens when generating each output token.
 
-So for example, in the sentence "Hello shiny sun!", if 3 dimensions are used they might be like:
+#### Example: Machine Translation
 
-* `Hello` -> \[0.34, 0.22, 0.54]
-* `shiny` -> \[0.53, 0.34, 0.98]
-* `sun` -> \[0.29, 0.54, 0.93]
+Consider translating the German sentence "Kannst du mir helfen diesen Satz zu übersetzen" into English. A word-by-word translation would not produce a grammatically correct English sentence due to differences in grammatical structures between languages. An attention mechanism enables the model to focus on relevant parts of the input sentence when generating each word of the output sentence, leading to a more accurate and coherent translation.
 
-Then, `Hello` , `shiny` and `sun` will have its own weight over `shiny`, which might be `0.23` , `1.3` and `0.84`.
+### Introduction to Self-Attention
 
-* The intermediate attention score of `Hello` over `shiny` would be: `0.34 * 0.53 + 0.22 * 0.34 + 0.54 * 0.98 = 0.7842`
-* The one of `shiny` will be: `0.53 * 0.53 + 0.34 * 0.34 + 0.98 * 0.98 = 2.405`
-* The one of `sun` over `shiny` will be: `0.29 * 0.53 + 0.54 * 0.34 + 0.93 * 0.98 = 1.2487`
+Self-attention, or intra-attention, is a mechanism where attention is applied within a single sequence to compute a representation of that sequence. It allows each token in the sequence to attend to all other tokens, helping the model capture dependencies between tokens regardless of their distance in the sequence.
 
-This operation is called **dot product** can be easily performed with a code like:
+#### Key Concepts
 
-```python
-res = 0
-
for idx, element in enumerate(inputs[0]):
-    res += inputs[0][idx] * query[idx]
-print(res)
-
print(torch.dot(inputs[0], query))
-```
+* **Tokens**: Individual elements of the input sequence (e.g., words in a sentence).
+* **Embeddings**: Vector representations of tokens, capturing semantic information.
+* **Attention Weights**: Values that determine the importance of each token relative to others.
 
-Then, these results are usually **normalised** so all of them ads 1 using the `torch.softmax` function. In these case the values will be **`[ 0.13074, 0.66139, 0.20887 ]`**
+### Calculating Attention Weights: A Step-by-Step Example
 
-With this we will have the normalized attention weight of every token over one of the tokens. And this allows to calculate the **context vector**, which will multiply the attention weight of every token over one token to each dimension of each token while adding them per dimension. So in this case this will be:
+Let's consider the sentence **"Hello shiny sun!"** and represent each word with a 3-dimensional embedding:
 
-**`[0.34, 0.22, 0.54]*0.13074 + [0.53, 0.34, 0.98]*0.66139 + [0.29, 0.54, 0.93]*0.20887 = [ 0.4555606, 0.3664252, 0.9130109 ]`**
+* **Hello**: `[0.34, 0.22, 0.54]`
+* **shiny**: `[0.53, 0.34, 0.98]`
+* **sun**: `[0.29, 0.54, 0.93]`
 
-That will be the context vector of the word "shiny" in the sentence "Hello shiny sun" according to the stablished weights.
+Our goal is to compute the **context vector** for the word **"shiny"** using self-attention.
 
-{% hint style="info" %}
-As summary we first calculated the attention weights of each token to a specific token by performing the dot product of the dimensional values of each token to the specific token. Then, these values were normalized and finally the normalization was used to multiply each dimension of each token and sum the values.
+#### Step 1: Compute Attention Scores
+
+{% hint style="success" %}
+Just multiply each dimension value of the query with the relevant one of each token and add the results. You get 1 value per pair of tokens.
 {% endhint %}
 
-### Self-Attention with trainable weights
+For each word in the sentence, compute the **attention score** with respect to "shiny" by calculating the dot product of their embeddings.
 
-For this, 3 new matrices are added: Wq (query), Wk (keys) and Wv (values).
+**Attention Score between "Hello" and "shiny"**
 
-Their dimensions will depend on the number of inputs and output we want. In the previous example the number of dimensions pe rtoken was 3, and we might be interested in 2 dimensions as output. Therfore:
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image.png" alt="" width="563"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+
+**Attention Score between "shiny" and "shiny"**
+
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (1).png" alt="" width="563"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+
+**Attention Score between "sun" and "shiny"**
+
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (2).png" alt="" width="563"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+
+#### Step 2: Normalize Attention Scores to Obtain Attention Weights
+
+{% hint style="success" %}
+Don't get lost in the mathematical terms, the goal of this function is simple, normalize all the weights so **they sum 1 in total**.
+
+Moreover, **softmax** function is used because it accentuates differences due to the exponential part, making easier to detect useful values.
+{% endhint %}
+
+Apply the **softmax function** to the attention scores to convert them into attention weights that sum to 1.
+
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (3).png" alt="" width="293"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+
+Calculating the exponentials:
+
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (4).png" alt="" width="249"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+
+Calculating the sum:
+
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (5).png" alt="" width="563"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+
+Calculating attention weights:
+
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (6).png" alt="" width="404"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+
+#### Step 3: Compute the Context Vector
+
+{% hint style="success" %}
+Just get each attention weight and multiply it to the related token dimensions and then sum all the dimensions to get just 1 vector (the context vector)&#x20;
+{% endhint %}
+
+The **context vector** is computed as the weighted sum of the embeddings of all words, using the attention weights.
+
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (16).png" alt="" width="369"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+
+Calculating each component:
+
+*   **Weighted Embedding of "Hello"**:
+
+    <figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (7).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+*   **Weighted Embedding of "shiny"**:
+
+    <figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (8).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+*   **Weighted Embedding of "sun"**:
+
+    <figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (9).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+
+Summing the weighted embeddings:
+
+`context vector=[0.0779+0.2156+0.1057, 0.0504+0.1382+0.1972, 0.1237+0.3983+0.3390]=[0.3992,0.3858,0.8610]`
+
+**This context vector represents the enriched embedding for the word "shiny," incorporating information from all words in the sentence.**
+
+### Summary of the Process
+
+1. **Compute Attention Scores**: Use the dot product between the embedding of the target word and the embeddings of all words in the sequence.
+2. **Normalize Scores to Get Attention Weights**: Apply the softmax function to the attention scores to obtain weights that sum to 1.
+3. **Compute Context Vector**: Multiply each word's embedding by its attention weight and sum the results.
+
+## Self-Attention with Trainable Weights
+
+In practice, self-attention mechanisms use **trainable weights** to learn the best representations for queries, keys, and values. This involves introducing three weight matrices:
+
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (10).png" alt="" width="239"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+
+The query is the data to use like before, while the keys and values matrices are just random-trainable matrices.
+
+#### Step 1: Compute Queries, Keys, and Values
+
+Each token will have its own query, key and value matrix by multiplying its dimension values by the defined matrices:
+
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (11).png" alt="" width="253"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+
+These matrices transform the original embeddings into a new space suitable for computing attention.
+
+**Example**
+
+Assuming:
+
+* Input dimension `din=3` (embedding size)
+* Output dimension `dout=2` (desired dimension for queries, keys, and values)
+
+Initialize the weight matrices:
 
 ```python
-W_query = torch.nn.Parameter(torch.rand(d_in, d_out), requires_grad=False)
-
W_key = torch.nn.Parameter(torch.rand(d_in, d_out), requires_grad=False)
-
W_value = torch.nn.Parameter(torch.rand(d_in, d_out), requires_grad=False)
+import torch.nn as nn
+
+d_in = 3
+d_out = 2
+
+W_query = nn.Parameter(torch.rand(d_in, d_out))
+W_key = nn.Parameter(torch.rand(d_in, d_out))
+W_value = nn.Parameter(torch.rand(d_in, d_out))
 ```
 
-Then, we need to compute each Wq, Wk and Wv per token. For the "shiny" token previuosky thiw will be like:
+Compute queries, keys, and values:
 
-* Wq\_shiny = \[0.53, 0.34, 0.98] \* Wq
-* Wk\_shiny = \[0.53, 0.34, 0.98] \* Wk
-* Wv\_shiny = \[0.53, 0.34, 0.98] \* Wv
+```python
+queries = torch.matmul(inputs, W_query)
+keys = torch.matmul(inputs, W_key)
+values = torch.matmul(inputs, W_value)
+```
 
-It would be also possible to compute all the Wk in python for example with: **`keys = inputs @ W_key`** which will be a matrix of 3x2 (3 inputs we had with 3 dimensions each, 2 output).
+#### Step 2: Compute Scaled Dot-Product Attention
 
-Then, to compute the **attention score** of each token it's just needed to do a **dot product** of the **query** with the **key vector** (like before but using the key vector of the token instead of its dimensions).
+**Compute Attention Scores**
 
-Having all the attention scores, it's possible to get the attention weights it's just needed to normalize them. In this case you could use the softmax function of the scores divided by the square root of the number of dimensions of the keys: **`torch.softmax(att_score / d_k**0.5, dim=-1)`** (expo 0.5 is the same as sqrt).
+Similar to the example from before, but this time, instead of using the values of the dimensions of the tokens, we use the key matrix of the token (calculated already using the dimensions):. So, for each query `qi`​ and key `kj​`:
 
-Finally, to compute the context vectors it's just needed to **multiply the values matrices with the attention weight and add them.**
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (12).png" alt=""><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
 
-### Code Exaple
+**Scale the Scores**
+
+To prevent the dot products from becoming too large, scale them by the square root of the key dimension `dk`​:
+
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (13).png" alt="" width="295"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+
+{% hint style="success" %}
+The score is divided by the square root of the dimensions because dot products might become very large and this helps to regulate them.
+{% endhint %}
+
+**Apply Softmax to Obtain Attention Weights:** Like in the initial example, normalize all the values so they sum 1.&#x20;
+
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (14).png" alt="" width="295"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+
+#### Step 3: Compute Context Vectors
+
+Like in the initial example, just sum all the values matrices multiplying each one by its attention weight:
+
+<figure><img src="../.gitbook/assets/image (15).png" alt="" width="328"><figcaption></figcaption></figure>
+
+### Code Example
 
 Grabbing an example from [https://github.com/rasbt/LLMs-from-scratch/blob/main/ch03/01\_main-chapter-code/ch03.ipynb](https://github.com/rasbt/LLMs-from-scratch/blob/main/ch03/01\_main-chapter-code/ch03.ipynb) you can check this class that implements the self-attendant functionality we talked about:
 
@@ -408,244 +523,13 @@ print(sa_v2(inputs))
 Note that instead of initializing the matrices with random values, `nn.Linear` is used (because the guy of the book says it's better, TODO)
 {% endhint %}
 
+## Causal Attention: Hiding Future Words
 
+For LLMs we want the model to consider only the tokens that appear before the current position in order to **predict the next token**. **Causal attention**, also known as **masked attention**, achieves this by modifying the attention mechanism to prevent access to future tokens.
 
+### Applying a Causal Attention Mask
 
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-## Attention Mechanisms and Self-Attention in Neural Networks
-
-Attention mechanisms allow neural networks to focus on specific parts of the input when generating each part of the output. They assign different weights to different inputs, helping the model decide which inputs are most relevant to the task at hand. This is crucial in tasks like machine translation, where understanding the context of the entire sentence is necessary for accurate translation.
-
-### Understanding Attention Mechanisms
-
-In traditional sequence-to-sequence models used for language translation, the model encodes an input sequence into a fixed-size context vector. However, this approach struggles with long sentences because the fixed-size context vector may not capture all necessary information. Attention mechanisms address this limitation by allowing the model to consider all input tokens when generating each output token.
-
-#### Example: Machine Translation
-
-Consider translating the German sentence "Kannst du mir helfen diesen Satz zu übersetzen" into English. A word-by-word translation would not produce a grammatically correct English sentence due to differences in grammatical structures between languages. An attention mechanism enables the model to focus on relevant parts of the input sentence when generating each word of the output sentence, leading to a more accurate and coherent translation.
-
-### Introduction to Self-Attention
-
-Self-attention, or intra-attention, is a mechanism where attention is applied within a single sequence to compute a representation of that sequence. It allows each token in the sequence to attend to all other tokens, helping the model capture dependencies between tokens regardless of their distance in the sequence.
-
-#### Key Concepts
-
-* **Tokens**: Individual elements of the input sequence (e.g., words in a sentence).
-* **Embeddings**: Vector representations of tokens, capturing semantic information.
-* **Attention Weights**: Values that determine the importance of each token relative to others.
-
-### Calculating Attention Weights: A Step-by-Step Example
-
-Let's consider the sentence **"Hello shiny sun!"** and represent each word with a 3-dimensional embedding:
-
-* **Hello**: `[0.34, 0.22, 0.54]`
-* **shiny**: `[0.53, 0.34, 0.98]`
-* **sun**: `[0.29, 0.54, 0.93]`
-
-Our goal is to compute the **context vector** for the word **"shiny"** using self-attention.
-
-#### Step 1: Compute Attention Scores
-
-For each word in the sentence, compute the **attention score** with respect to "shiny" by calculating the dot product of their embeddings.
-
-**Attention Score between "Hello" and "shiny"**
-
-scoreHello, shiny=(0.34×0.53)+(0.22×0.34)+(0.54×0.98)=0.1802+0.0748+0.5292=0.7842\begin{align\*} \text{score}\_{\text{Hello, shiny\}} &= (0.34 \times 0.53) + (0.22 \times 0.34) + (0.54 \times 0.98) \\\ &= 0.1802 + 0.0748 + 0.5292 \\\ &= 0.7842 \end{align\*}scoreHello, shiny​​=(0.34×0.53)+(0.22×0.34)+(0.54×0.98)=0.1802+0.0748+0.5292=0.7842​
-
-**Attention Score between "shiny" and "shiny"**
-
-scoreshiny, shiny=(0.53×0.53)+(0.34×0.34)+(0.98×0.98)=0.2809+0.1156+0.9604=1.3569\begin{align\*} \text{score}\_{\text{shiny, shiny\}} &= (0.53 \times 0.53) + (0.34 \times 0.34) + (0.98 \times 0.98) \\\ &= 0.2809 + 0.1156 + 0.9604 \\\ &= 1.3569 \end{align\*}scoreshiny, shiny​​=(0.53×0.53)+(0.34×0.34)+(0.98×0.98)=0.2809+0.1156+0.9604=1.3569​
-
-**Attention Score between "sun" and "shiny"**
-
-scoresun, shiny=(0.29×0.53)+(0.54×0.34)+(0.93×0.98)=0.1537+0.1836+0.9114=1.2487\begin{align\*} \text{score}\_{\text{sun, shiny\}} &= (0.29 \times 0.53) + (0.54 \times 0.34) + (0.93 \times 0.98) \\\ &= 0.1537 + 0.1836 + 0.9114 \\\ &= 1.2487 \end{align\*}scoresun, shiny​​=(0.29×0.53)+(0.54×0.34)+(0.93×0.98)=0.1537+0.1836+0.9114=1.2487​
-
-#### Step 2: Normalize Attention Scores to Obtain Attention Weights
-
-Apply the **softmax function** to the attention scores to convert them into attention weights that sum to 1.
-
-αi=escorei∑jescorej\alpha\_i = \frac{e^{\text{score}\_i\}}{\sum\_{j} e^{\text{score}\_j\}}αi​=∑j​escorej​escorei​​
-
-Calculating the exponentials:
-
-e0.7842=2.1902e1.3569=3.8839e1.2487=3.4858\begin{align\*} e^{0.7842} &= 2.1902 \\\ e^{1.3569} &= 3.8839 \\\ e^{1.2487} &= 3.4858 \end{align\*}e0.7842e1.3569e1.2487​=2.1902=3.8839=3.4858​
-
-Calculating the sum:
-
-∑iescorei=2.1902+3.8839+3.4858=9.5599\sum\_{i} e^{\text{score}\_i} = 2.1902 + 3.8839 + 3.4858 = 9.5599i∑​escorei​=2.1902+3.8839+3.4858=9.5599
-
-Calculating attention weights:
-
-αHello=2.19029.5599=0.2291αshiny=3.88399.5599=0.4064αsun=3.48589.5599=0.3645\begin{align\*} \alpha\_{\text{Hello\}} &= \frac{2.1902}{9.5599} = 0.2291 \\\ \alpha\_{\text{shiny\}} &= \frac{3.8839}{9.5599} = 0.4064 \\\ \alpha\_{\text{sun\}} &= \frac{3.4858}{9.5599} = 0.3645 \end{align\*}αHello​αshiny​αsun​​=9.55992.1902​=0.2291=9.55993.8839​=0.4064=9.55993.4858​=0.3645​
-
-#### Step 3: Compute the Context Vector
-
-The **context vector** is computed as the weighted sum of the embeddings of all words, using the attention weights.
-
-context vector=∑iαi×embeddingi\text{context vector} = \sum\_{i} \alpha\_i \times \text{embedding}\_icontext vector=i∑​αi​×embeddingi​
-
-Calculating each component:
-
-*   **Weighted Embedding of "Hello"**:
-
-    αHello×embeddingHello=0.2291×\[0.34,0.22,0.54]=\[0.0779,0.0504,0.1237]\alpha\_{\text{Hello\}} \times \text{embedding}\_{\text{Hello\}} = 0.2291 \times \[0.34, 0.22, 0.54] = \[0.0779, 0.0504, 0.1237]αHello​×embeddingHello​=0.2291×\[0.34,0.22,0.54]=\[0.0779,0.0504,0.1237]
-*   **Weighted Embedding of "shiny"**:
-
-    αshiny×embeddingshiny=0.4064×\[0.53,0.34,0.98]=\[0.2156,0.1382,0.3983]\alpha\_{\text{shiny\}} \times \text{embedding}\_{\text{shiny\}} = 0.4064 \times \[0.53, 0.34, 0.98] = \[0.2156, 0.1382, 0.3983]αshiny​×embeddingshiny​=0.4064×\[0.53,0.34,0.98]=\[0.2156,0.1382,0.3983]
-*   **Weighted Embedding of "sun"**:
-
-    αsun×embeddingsun=0.3645×\[0.29,0.54,0.93]=\[0.1057,0.1972,0.3390]\alpha\_{\text{sun\}} \times \text{embedding}\_{\text{sun\}} = 0.3645 \times \[0.29, 0.54, 0.93] = \[0.1057, 0.1972, 0.3390]αsun​×embeddingsun​=0.3645×\[0.29,0.54,0.93]=\[0.1057,0.1972,0.3390]
-
-Summing the weighted embeddings:
-
-context vector=\[0.0779+0.2156+0.1057, 0.0504+0.1382+0.1972, 0.1237+0.3983+0.3390]=\[0.3992,0.3858,0.8610]\text{context vector} = \[0.0779 + 0.2156 + 0.1057, \ 0.0504 + 0.1382 + 0.1972, \ 0.1237 + 0.3983 + 0.3390] = \[0.3992, 0.3858, 0.8610]context vector=\[0.0779+0.2156+0.1057, 0.0504+0.1382+0.1972, 0.1237+0.3983+0.3390]=\[0.3992,0.3858,0.8610]
-
-This context vector represents the enriched embedding for the word "shiny," incorporating information from all words in the sentence.
-
-### Summary of the Process
-
-1. **Compute Attention Scores**: Use the dot product between the embedding of the target word and the embeddings of all words in the sequence.
-2. **Normalize Scores to Get Attention Weights**: Apply the softmax function to the attention scores to obtain weights that sum to 1.
-3. **Compute Context Vector**: Multiply each word's embedding by its attention weight and sum the results.
-
-### Self-Attention with Trainable Weights
-
-In practice, self-attention mechanisms use **trainable weights** to learn the best representations for queries, keys, and values. This involves introducing three weight matrices:
-
-* **WqW\_qWq​** (Weights for queries)
-* **WkW\_kWk​** (Weights for keys)
-* **WvW\_vWv​** (Weights for values)
-
-#### Step 1: Compute Queries, Keys, and Values
-
-For each token embedding xix\_ixi​:
-
-* **Query**: qi=xi×Wqq\_i = x\_i \times W\_qqi​=xi​×Wq​
-* **Key**: ki=xi×Wkk\_i = x\_i \times W\_kki​=xi​×Wk​
-* **Value**: vi=xi×Wvv\_i = x\_i \times W\_vvi​=xi​×Wv​
-
-These matrices transform the original embeddings into a new space suitable for computing attention.
-
-**Example**
-
-Assuming:
-
-* Input dimension din=3d\_{\text{in\}} = 3din​=3 (embedding size)
-* Output dimension dout=2d\_{\text{out\}} = 2dout​=2 (desired dimension for queries, keys, and values)
-
-Initialize the weight matrices:
-
-```python
-pythonCopy codeimport torch.nn as nn
-
-d_in = 3
-d_out = 2
-
-W_query = nn.Parameter(torch.rand(d_in, d_out))
-W_key = nn.Parameter(torch.rand(d_in, d_out))
-W_value = nn.Parameter(torch.rand(d_in, d_out))
-```
-
-Compute queries, keys, and values:
-
-```python
-pythonCopy codequeries = torch.matmul(inputs, W_query)
-keys = torch.matmul(inputs, W_key)
-values = torch.matmul(inputs, W_value)
-```
-
-#### Step 2: Compute Scaled Dot-Product Attention
-
-**Compute Attention Scores**
-
-For each query qiq\_iqi​ and key kjk\_jkj​:
-
-scoreij=qi⋅kj\text{score}\_{ij} = q\_i \cdot k\_jscoreij​=qi​⋅kj​
-
-**Scale the Scores**
-
-To prevent the dot products from becoming too large, scale them by the square root of the key dimension dkd\_kdk​:
-
-scaled scoreij=scoreijdk\text{scaled score}\_{ij} = \frac{\text{score}\_{ij\}}{\sqrt{d\_k\}}scaled scoreij​=dk​​scoreij​​
-
-**Apply Softmax to Obtain Attention Weights**
-
-αij=softmax(scaled scoreij)\alpha\_{ij} = \text{softmax}(\text{scaled score}\_{ij})αij​=softmax(scaled scoreij​)
-
-#### Step 3: Compute Context Vectors
-
-Compute the context vector for each token by taking the weighted sum of the value vectors:
-
-context vectori=∑jαij×vj\text{context vector}\_i = \sum\_{j} \alpha\_{ij} \times v\_jcontext vectori​=j∑​αij​×vj​
-
-#### Implementation in Code
-
-```python
-pythonCopy codeclass SelfAttention(nn.Module):
-    def __init__(self, d_in, d_k):
-        super(SelfAttention, self).__init__()
-        self.W_query = nn.Linear(d_in, d_k, bias=False)
-        self.W_key = nn.Linear(d_in, d_k, bias=False)
-        self.W_value = nn.Linear(d_in, d_k, bias=False)
-
-    def forward(self, x):
-        queries = self.W_query(x)
-        keys = self.W_key(x)
-        values = self.W_value(x)
-        
-        scores = torch.matmul(queries, keys.transpose(-2, -1)) / (d_k ** 0.5)
-        attention_weights = torch.softmax(scores, dim=-1)
-        context = torch.matmul(attention_weights, values)
-        return context
-```
-
-#### Exercise 1: Comparing `SelfAttention_v1` and `SelfAttention_v2`
-
-In the implementations of `SelfAttention_v1` and `SelfAttention_v2`, there is a difference in how the weight matrices are initialized:
-
-* **`SelfAttention_v1`** uses `nn.Parameter(torch.rand(d_in, d_out))`.
-* **`SelfAttention_v2`** uses `nn.Linear(d_in, d_out, bias=False)`, which initializes weights using a more sophisticated method.
-
-To ensure both implementations produce the same output, we need to transfer the weights from an instance of `SelfAttention_v2` to an instance of `SelfAttention_v1`. However, we must consider that `nn.Linear` stores weights in a transposed form compared to `nn.Parameter`.
-
-**Solution**
-
-1.  Create instances of both classes:
-
-    ```python
-    pythonCopy codesa_v1 = SelfAttention_v1(d_in, d_out)
-    sa_v2 = SelfAttention_v2(d_in, d_out)
-    ```
-2.  Assign weights from `sa_v2` to `sa_v1` with appropriate transposition:
-
-    ```python
-    pythonCopy codesa_v1.W_query.data = sa_v2.W_query.weight.data.t()
-    sa_v1.W_key.data = sa_v2.W_key.weight.data.t()
-    sa_v1.W_value.data = sa_v2.W_value.weight.data.t()
-    ```
-3.  Verify that both produce the same output:
-
-    ```python
-    pythonCopy codeoutput_v1 = sa_v1(inputs)
-    output_v2 = sa_v2(inputs)
-    assert torch.allclose(output_v1, output_v2)
-    ```
-
-### Causal Attention: Hiding Future Words
-
-In tasks like language modeling, we want the model to consider only the tokens that appear before the current position when predicting the next token. **Causal attention**, also known as **masked attention**, achieves this by modifying the attention mechanism to prevent access to future tokens.
-
-#### Applying a Causal Attention Mask
-
-To implement causal attention, we apply a mask to the attention scores before the softmax operation. This mask sets the attention scores of future tokens to negative infinity, ensuring that after the softmax, their attention weights are zero.
+To implement causal attention, we apply a mask to the attention scores **before the softmax operation** so the reminding ones will still sum 1. This mask sets the attention scores of future tokens to negative infinity, ensuring that after the softmax, their attention weights are zero.
 
 **Steps**
 
@@ -653,115 +537,179 @@ To implement causal attention, we apply a mask to the attention scores before th
 2.  **Apply Mask**: Use an upper triangular matrix filled with negative infinity above the diagonal.
 
     ```python
-    pythonCopy codemask = torch.triu(torch.ones(seq_len, seq_len), diagonal=1) * float('-inf')
+    mask = torch.triu(torch.ones(seq_len, seq_len), diagonal=1) * float('-inf')
     masked_scores = attention_scores + mask
     ```
 3.  **Apply Softmax**: Compute attention weights using the masked scores.
 
     ```python
-    pythonCopy codeattention_weights = torch.softmax(masked_scores, dim=-1)
+    attention_weights = torch.softmax(masked_scores, dim=-1)
     ```
 
-#### Masking Additional Attention Weights with Dropout
+### Masking Additional Attention Weights with Dropout
 
-To prevent overfitting, we can apply **dropout** to the attention weights after the softmax operation. Dropout randomly zeroes some of the attention weights during training.
+To **prevent overfitting**, we can apply **dropout** to the attention weights after the softmax operation. Dropout **randomly zeroes some of the attention weights** during training.
 
 ```python
-pythonCopy codedropout = nn.Dropout(p=0.5)
+dropout = nn.Dropout(p=0.5)
 attention_weights = dropout(attention_weights)
 ```
 
-#### Implementing a Compact Causal Attention Class
+### Code Example
 
-We can encapsulate the causal attention mechanism into a PyTorch module:
+Code example from [https://github.com/rasbt/LLMs-from-scratch/blob/main/ch03/01\_main-chapter-code/ch03.ipynb](https://github.com/rasbt/LLMs-from-scratch/blob/main/ch03/01\_main-chapter-code/ch03.ipynb):
 
 ```python
-pythonCopy codeclass CausalAttention(nn.Module):
-    def __init__(self, d_in, d_out, seq_len, dropout_rate):
-        super(CausalAttention, self).__init__()
-        self.W_query = nn.Linear(d_in, d_out, bias=False)
-        self.W_key = nn.Linear(d_in, d_out, bias=False)
-        self.W_value = nn.Linear(d_in, d_out, bias=False)
-        self.dropout = nn.Dropout(dropout_rate)
-        self.register_buffer('mask', torch.triu(torch.ones(seq_len, seq_len), diagonal=1) * float('-inf'))
+import torch
+import torch.nn as nn
+
+inputs = torch.tensor(
+  [[0.43, 0.15, 0.89], # Your     (x^1)
+   [0.55, 0.87, 0.66], # journey  (x^2)
+   [0.57, 0.85, 0.64], # starts   (x^3)
+   [0.22, 0.58, 0.33], # with     (x^4)
+   [0.77, 0.25, 0.10], # one      (x^5)
+   [0.05, 0.80, 0.55]] # step     (x^6)
+)
+
+batch = torch.stack((inputs, inputs), dim=0)
+print(batch.shape)
+
+class CausalAttention(nn.Module):
+
+    def __init__(self, d_in, d_out, context_length,
+                 dropout, qkv_bias=False):
+        super().__init__()
+        self.d_out = d_out
+        self.W_query = nn.Linear(d_in, d_out, bias=qkv_bias)
+        self.W_key   = nn.Linear(d_in, d_out, bias=qkv_bias)
+        self.W_value = nn.Linear(d_in, d_out, bias=qkv_bias)
+        self.dropout = nn.Dropout(dropout)
+        self.register_buffer('mask', torch.triu(torch.ones(context_length, context_length), diagonal=1)) # New
 
     def forward(self, x):
+        b, num_tokens, d_in = x.shape
+        # b is the num of batches
+        # num_tokens is the number of tokens per batch
+        # d_in is the dimensions er token
+        
+        keys = self.W_key(x) # This generates the keys of the tokens
         queries = self.W_query(x)
-        keys = self.W_key(x)
         values = self.W_value(x)
 
-        scores = torch.matmul(queries, keys.transpose(-2, -1)) / (d_out ** 0.5)
-        scores += self.mask[:x.size(1), :x.size(1)]
-        attention_weights = torch.softmax(scores, dim=-1)
-        attention_weights = self.dropout(attention_weights)
-        context = torch.matmul(attention_weights, values)
-        return context
+        attn_scores = queries @ keys.transpose(1, 2) # Moves the third dimension to the second one and the second one to the third one to be able to multiply
+        attn_scores.masked_fill_(  # New, _ ops are in-place
+            self.mask.bool()[:num_tokens, :num_tokens], -torch.inf)  # `:num_tokens` to account for cases where the number of tokens in the batch is smaller than the supported context_size
+        attn_weights = torch.softmax(
+            attn_scores / keys.shape[-1]**0.5, dim=-1
+        )
+        attn_weights = self.dropout(attn_weights)
+
+        context_vec = attn_weights @ values
+        return context_vec
+
+torch.manual_seed(123)
+
+context_length = batch.shape[1]
+d_in = 3
+d_out = 2
+ca = CausalAttention(d_in, d_out, context_length, 0.0)
+
+context_vecs = ca(batch)
+
+print(context_vecs)
+print("context_vecs.shape:", context_vecs.shape)
 ```
 
-### Extending Single-Head Attention to Multi-Head Attention
+## Extending Single-Head Attention to Multi-Head Attention
 
-**Multi-head attention** allows the model to attend to information from different representation subspaces at different positions. This is achieved by splitting the attention mechanism into multiple "heads," each with its own set of weight matrices.
+**Multi-head attention** in practical terms consist on executing **multiple instances** of the self-attention function each of them with **their own weights** so different final vectors are calculated.
 
-#### Implementing Multi-Head Attention by Stacking Layers
+### Code Example
 
-We can create multiple instances of the attention mechanism and concatenate their outputs:
+It could be possible to reuse the previous code and just add a wrapper that launches it several time, but this is a more optimised version from [https://github.com/rasbt/LLMs-from-scratch/blob/main/ch03/01\_main-chapter-code/ch03.ipynb](https://github.com/rasbt/LLMs-from-scratch/blob/main/ch03/01\_main-chapter-code/ch03.ipynb) that processes all the heads at the same time (reducing the number of expensive matrices operations). As you can see in the code, the dimensions of each token is diviedd in different dimensions according to the number of heads. This way if token have 8 dimensions and we want to use 3 heads, the dimensions will be divided in 2 arrays of 4 dimensions and each head will use one of them:
 
 ```python
-pythonCopy codeclass MultiHeadAttention(nn.Module):
-    def __init__(self, d_in, d_out, seq_len, num_heads, dropout_rate):
-        super(MultiHeadAttention, self).__init__()
+class MultiHeadAttention(nn.Module):
+    def __init__(self, d_in, d_out, context_length, dropout, num_heads, qkv_bias=False):
+        super().__init__()
+        assert (d_out % num_heads == 0), \
+            "d_out must be divisible by num_heads"
+
+        self.d_out = d_out
         self.num_heads = num_heads
-        self.attention_heads = nn.ModuleList([CausalAttention(d_in, d_out // num_heads, seq_len, dropout_rate) for _ in range(num_heads)])
-        self.linear = nn.Linear(d_out, d_out)
+        self.head_dim = d_out // num_heads # Reduce the projection dim to match desired output dim
+
+        self.W_query = nn.Linear(d_in, d_out, bias=qkv_bias)
+        self.W_key = nn.Linear(d_in, d_out, bias=qkv_bias)
+        self.W_value = nn.Linear(d_in, d_out, bias=qkv_bias)
+        self.out_proj = nn.Linear(d_out, d_out)  # Linear layer to combine head outputs
+        self.dropout = nn.Dropout(dropout)
+        self.register_buffer(
+            "mask",
+            torch.triu(torch.ones(context_length, context_length),
+                       diagonal=1)
+        )
 
     def forward(self, x):
-        head_outputs = [head(x) for head in self.attention_heads]
-        concat = torch.cat(head_outputs, dim=-1)
-        output = self.linear(concat)
-        return output
+        b, num_tokens, d_in = x.shape
+        # b is the num of batches
+        # num_tokens is the number of tokens per batch
+        # d_in is the dimensions er token
+
+        keys = self.W_key(x) # Shape: (b, num_tokens, d_out)
+        queries = self.W_query(x)
+        values = self.W_value(x)
+
+        # We implicitly split the matrix by adding a `num_heads` dimension
+        # Unroll last dim: (b, num_tokens, d_out) -> (b, num_tokens, num_heads, head_dim)
+        keys = keys.view(b, num_tokens, self.num_heads, self.head_dim) 
+        values = values.view(b, num_tokens, self.num_heads, self.head_dim)
+        queries = queries.view(b, num_tokens, self.num_heads, self.head_dim)
+
+        # Transpose: (b, num_tokens, num_heads, head_dim) -> (b, num_heads, num_tokens, head_dim)
+        keys = keys.transpose(1, 2)
+        queries = queries.transpose(1, 2)
+        values = values.transpose(1, 2)
+
+        # Compute scaled dot-product attention (aka self-attention) with a causal mask
+        attn_scores = queries @ keys.transpose(2, 3)  # Dot product for each head
+
+        # Original mask truncated to the number of tokens and converted to boolean
+        mask_bool = self.mask.bool()[:num_tokens, :num_tokens]
+
+        # Use the mask to fill attention scores
+        attn_scores.masked_fill_(mask_bool, -torch.inf)
+        
+        attn_weights = torch.softmax(attn_scores / keys.shape[-1]**0.5, dim=-1)
+        attn_weights = self.dropout(attn_weights)
+
+        # Shape: (b, num_tokens, num_heads, head_dim)
+        context_vec = (attn_weights @ values).transpose(1, 2) 
+        
+        # Combine heads, where self.d_out = self.num_heads * self.head_dim
+        context_vec = context_vec.contiguous().view(b, num_tokens, self.d_out)
+        context_vec = self.out_proj(context_vec) # optional projection
+
+        return context_vec
+
+torch.manual_seed(123)
+
+batch_size, context_length, d_in = batch.shape
+d_out = 2
+mha = MultiHeadAttention(d_in, d_out, context_length, 0.0, num_heads=2)
+
+context_vecs = mha(batch)
+
+print(context_vecs)
+print("context_vecs.shape:", context_vecs.shape)
+
 ```
 
-#### Efficient Implementation with Weight Splits
-
-To optimize the computation, we can perform all the attention computations in parallel without explicit loops by reshaping tensors:
-
-```python
-pythonCopy codeclass MultiHeadAttentionEfficient(nn.Module):
-    def __init__(self, d_in, d_out, seq_len, num_heads, dropout_rate):
-        super(MultiHeadAttentionEfficient, self).__init__()
-        assert d_out % num_heads == 0
-        self.num_heads = num_heads
-        self.head_dim = d_out // num_heads
-        self.W_query = nn.Linear(d_in, d_out, bias=False)
-        self.W_key = nn.Linear(d_in, d_out, bias=False)
-        self.W_value = nn.Linear(d_in, d_out, bias=False)
-        self.dropout = nn.Dropout(dropout_rate)
-        self.register_buffer('mask', torch.triu(torch.ones(seq_len, seq_len), diagonal=1) * float('-inf'))
-        self.out_proj = nn.Linear(d_out, d_out)
-
-    def forward(self, x):
-        batch_size, seq_len, _ = x.size()
-        queries = self.W_query(x).view(batch_size, seq_len, self.num_heads, self.head_dim).transpose(1,2)
-        keys = self.W_key(x).view(batch_size, seq_len, self.num_heads, self.head_dim).transpose(1,2)
-        values = self.W_value(x).view(batch_size, seq_len, self.num_heads, self.head_dim).transpose(1,2)
-        
-        scores = torch.matmul(queries, keys.transpose(-2, -1)) / (self.head_dim ** 0.5)
-        scores += self.mask[:seq_len, :seq_len]
-        attention_weights = torch.softmax(scores, dim=-1)
-        attention_weights = self.dropout(attention_weights)
-        
-        context = torch.matmul(attention_weights, values).transpose(1,2).contiguous().view(batch_size, seq_len, -1)
-        output = self.out_proj(context)
-        return output
-```
-
-**Explanation of Code Components**
-
-* **Reshaping**: The `view` and `transpose` operations split the embeddings into multiple heads.
-* **Parallel Computation**: Matrix multiplications are performed in parallel across all heads.
-* **Output Projection**: The outputs from all heads are concatenated and passed through a linear layer.
-
-####
-
+For another compact and efficient implementation you could use the [`torch.nn.MultiheadAttention`](https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/generated/torch.nn.MultiheadAttention.html) class in PyTorch.
 
+{% hint style="success" %}
+Short answer of ChatGPT about why it's better to divide dimensions of tokens among the heads instead of hacing each head check all the dimensions of all the tokens:
 
+While allowing each head to process all embedding dimensions might seem advantageous because each head would have access to the full information, the standard practice is to **divide the embedding dimensions among the heads**. This approach balances computational efficiency with model performance and encourages each head to learn diverse representations. Therefore, splitting the embedding dimensions is generally preferred over having each head check all dimensions.
+{% endhint %}